;Ultimate Civ II - Civilopedia Descriptions Text File -- Copyright (c) 1997 MicroProse Software, Inc. 
;

@ADVANCE_DESCRIPTIONS

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@IMPROVEMENT_DESCRIPTIONS

@@IMPROVEMENT_INDEX
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@WONDER_DESCRIPTIONS

@@WONDER_INDEX
0,			; Pyramids
1,			; Hanging Gardens
2,			; Colossus
3,			; Lighthouse
4,			; Great Library
5,			; Oracle
6,			; Great Wall
7,			; Sun Tzu's War Academy
8,			; King Richard's Crusade
9,			; Marco Polo's Embassy
10,			; Michelangelo's Chapel
11,			; Copernicus' Observatory
12,			; Magellan's Expedition
13,			; Shakespeare's Theatre
14,			; Leonardo's Workshop
15,			; J. S. Bach's Cathedral
16,			; Isaac Newton's College
17,			; Adam Smith's Trading Co.
18,			; Darwin's Voyage
19,			; Statue of Liberty
20,			; Eiffel Tower
21,			; Women's Suffrage
22,			; Hoover Dam
23,			; Manhattan Project
24,			; United Nations
25,			; Apollo Program
26,			; SETI Program
27,			; Cure for Cancer
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@00	None

@@01	Russian Patriotism

The Patriotic War of 1812 was a tremendous historical testing of the Russian people against Europe's most powerful enemy - the army of Napoleon. The invasion of Russia by the Napoleonic army called forth in that country a feeling of hatred for the foreign conquerors, self-sacrifice and heroism. 

The people as a whole rose to struggle against the invaders. Alongside the Russian Army there were numerous folk levies and guerrilla bands, all with the single motive of freeing their homeland from the foreign conquerors. 

@@02	Colonial trade

The global expansion of western Europe between the 1760s and the 1870s differed in several important ways from the expansionism and colonialism of previous centuries. Along with the rise of the Industrial Revolution, which economic historians generally trace to the 1760s, and the continuing spread of industrialization in the empire-building countries came a shift in the strategy of trade with the colonial world. 

Instead of being primarily buyers of colonial products (and frequently under strain to offer sufficient salable goods to balance the exchange), as in the past, the industrializing nations increasingly became sellers in search of markets for the growing volume of their machine-produced goods.
 
Furthermore, over the years there occurred a decided shift in the composition of demand for goods produced in the colonial areas. Spices, sugar, and slaves became relatively less important with the advance of industrialization, concomitant with a rising demand for raw materials for industry (e.g., cotton, wool, vegetable oils, jute, dyestuffs) and food for the swelling industrial areas (wheat, tea, coffee, cocoa, meat, butter).

This shift in trading patterns entailed in the long run changes in colonial policy and practice as well as in the nature of colonial acquisitions. The urgency to create markets and the incessant pressure for new materials and food were eventually reflected in colonial practices, which sought to adapt the colonial areas to the new priorities of the industrializing nations. Such adaptation involved major disruptions of existing social systems over wide areas of the globe. 

@@03	British Navy

The French Revolutionary Wars of 1793-1802 and the Napoleonic Wars of 1803-15 saw the Royal Navy reach a peak of efficiency, dominating the navies of all Britain's adversaries. Initially Britain did not involve itself in the French Revolution, but in 1793 France declared war, leading to the Glorious First of June battle in the following year off Brest, followed by the capture of French colonies in the Caribbean. 

The Peace of Amiens in 1802 proved to be but a brief interruption in the years of warfare, and the Navy was soon blockading Napoleon's France. In 1805 French invasion forces were massed on the French coast with 2,300 vessels. The French fleet at Toulon went to the West Indies where it was intended to meet the Spanish one but it was chased by the British fleet and returned without meeting up. After fighting an action off Finisterre the French fleet withdrew to Cadiz where it met up with the Spanish one. The height of the Navy's achievements came on 21 October 1805 at the Battle of Trafalgar where a numerically smaller but more experienced British fleet under the command of Admiral Lord Nelson decisively defeated the combined French and Spanish fleet. The victory at Trafalgar consolidated the United Kingdom's advantage over other European maritime powers, but Nelson was killed during the battle. 

By concentrating its military resources in the navy, Britain could both defend itself and project its power across the oceans as well as threaten rivals' ocean trading routes. Britain therefore needed to maintain only a relatively small, highly mobile, professional army that sailed to where it was needed, and was supported by the navy with bombardment, movement, supplies and reinforcement. The Navy could cut off enemies' sea-borne supplies.

@@04	None

@@05 Sultan Ahmed Mosque

After the Peace of Zsitvatorok and the crushing loss in the 1603-18 war with Persia, Sultan Ahmet I, decided to build a large mosque in Istanbul to reassert Ottoman power. It would be the first imperial mosque for more than forty years. While his predecessors had paid for their mosques with the spoils of war, Ahmet I procured funds from the Treasury, because he had not gained remarkable victories. The construction was started in 1609 and not completed until 1617.

It caused the anger of the ulama, the Muslim jurists. The mosque was built on the site of the palace of the Byzantine emperors, in front of the basilica Hagia Sophia (at that time, the primary imperial mosque in Istanbul) and the hippodrome, a site of significant symbolic meaning as it dominated the city skyline from the south. Big parts of the south shore of the mosque rest on the foundations, the vaults of the old Grand Palace

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque, also known as the Blue Mosque, has five main domes, six minarets, and eight secondary domes. The design is the culmination of two centuries of Ottoman mosque development. It incorporates some Byzantine Christian elements of the neighboring Hagia Sophia with traditional Islamic architecture and is considered to be the last great mosque of the classical period. 

The architect, Sedefkar Mehmed Aga, synthesized the ideas of his master Sinan, aiming for overwhelming size, majesty and splendour. It has a forecourt and special area for ablution. In the middle it has a big fountain. On the upper side it has a big chain. The upper area is made up of 20000 ceramic tiles each having 60 tulip designs. In the lower area it has 200 stained glass windows. 

@@06	None

@@07	L'lan Napolonien

Napoleon invariably sought to achieve decision in battle, with the sole aim of utterly destroying his opponent, usually achieving success through superior maneuver. As ruler and general he dealt with the grand strategy as well as the operational strategy, making use of political and economic measures. He also believed that the key to victory was in the momentum and courage of his troops, rather than in the efficiency of his staff.

While not the originator of the methods he used, Napoleon very effectively combined the relatively superior maneuver and battle stages into one event. Before this, General Officers had considered this approach to battle as separate events. However, Napoleon used the maneuver to battle to dictate how and where the battle would progress. The Battle of Austerlitz was a perfect example of this maneuver. Napoleon withdrew from a strong position to draw his opponent forward and tempt him into a flank attack, weakening his center. This allowed the French army to split the allied army and gain victory. 

Napoleon used two primary strategies for the approach to battle. His "Manoeuvre De Derrire" (move onto the rear) was intended to place the French Army across the enemy's lines of communications. Using a "pinning" force to keep the opponent stationary, he would swing around onto his opponents rear with the bulk of his army, forcing the adversary to either accept a battle on Napoleon's terms or push further into the pinning force and hostile territory. By placing his army into the rear, his opponent's supplies and communications would be cut. This had a negative effect on enemy morale. Once joined, the battle would be one in which his opponent could not afford defeat. This also allowed Napoleon to select multiple march routes into a battle site. Initially, the lack of force concentration helped with foraging for food and sought to confuse the enemy as to his real location and intentions. This strategy, along with the use of forced marches created a morale bonus that played heavily in his favor. 

The "indirect" approach into battle also allowed Napoleon to disrupt the linear formations used by the allied armies. As the battle progressed, the enemy committed their reserves to stabilize the situation, Napoleon would suddenly release the flanking formation to attack the enemy. His opponents, being suddenly confronted with a new threat and with little reserves, had no choice but to weaken the area closest to the flanking formation and draw up a battleline at a right angle in an attempt to stop this new threat. Once this had occurred, Napoleon would mass his reserves at the hinge of that right angle and launch a heavy attack to break the lines. The rupture in the enemy lines allowed Napoleon's cavalry to flank both lines and roll them up leaving his opponent no choice but to surrender or flee. 

The second strategy used by Napoleon I when confronted with two or more enemy armies was the use of the central position. This allowed Napoleon to drive a wedge to separate the enemy armies. He would then use part of his force to mask one army while the larger portion overwhelmed and defeated the second army quickly. He would then march on the second army leaving a portion to pursue the first army and repeat the operations. This was designed to achieve the highest concentration of men into the primary battle while limiting the enemy's ability to reinforce the critical battle. The central position had a weakness in that the full power of the pursuit of the enemy could not be achieved because the second army needed attention. So overall the preferred method of attack was the flank march to cross the enemy's logistics. 

@@08	Watt's Steam Engine

The Watt steam engine, alternatively known as the Boulton and Watt steam engine, was the first practical steam engine and was one of the driving forces of the industrial revolution. James Watt developed the design sporadically from 1763 to 1775 with support from Matthew Boulton. Watt's design saved significantly more fuel compared to earlier designs that they were licensed based on the amount of fuel they would save. Watt never ceased developing the steam engine, introducing double-acting designs (with two cylinders) and various systems for taking off rotary power. Watt's design became synonymous with steam engines, and it was many years before significantly new designs began to replace the basic Watt design. 

The first steam engines, introduced by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, were of the "atmospheric" design. Steam was introduced into a cylinder which was then cooled by a spray of water. This caused the steam to condense, forming a partial vacuum in the cylinder. Atmospheric pressure on the top pushed the piston down. Watt noticed that the water spray also cooled the cylinder itself, and it required significant amounts of heat to warm it back up to the point where steam could enter the cylinder without immediately condensing again. Watt addressed this by adding a separate water-filled cylinder which was opened once the main cylinder was filled. The steam entered the secondary cylinder and condensed, drawing remaining steam from the main cylinder to continue the process. The end result was the same cycle as Newcomen's design, but without any cooling of the main cylinder which was immediately ready for another stroke. Watt worked on the design over a period of several years, introducing the condenser and improvements to practically every part of the design, notably a lengthy series of trials on ways to seal the piston in the cylinder. All of these changes produced a more reliable design which used half as much coal to produce the same amount of power.

The new design was introduced commercially in 1776, with the first example sold to the Carron Company ironworks. Watt continued working to improve the engine, and in 1781 introduced a system using a sun and planet gear to turn the linear motion of the engines into rotary motion. This made it useful not only in the original pumping role, but also as a direct replacement in roles where a water wheel would have been used previously. This was a key moment in the industrial revolution, since power sources could now be located anywhere instead of, as previously, needing a suitable water source and topography. 

@@09	Corps Diplomatique

Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, along with Napoleon's younger brother, Lucien Bonaparte, was instrumental in the 1799 coup d'tat of 18 Brumaire, establishing the French Consulate government. Talleyrand was soon made Foreign Minister by Napoleon, although he rarely agreed with Napoleon's foreign policy. The Pope released him from the ban of excommunication in the Concordat of 1801, which also revoked the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Talleyrand was instrumental in the completion of the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. He wanted Napoleon to keep peace afterwards, as he thought France had reached its maximum expansion. 

Talleyrand was an integral player in the German mediatization. While the Treaty of Campo Formio of 1797 had, on paper, stripped German princes of their lands beyond the left bank of the Rhine, it was not enforced until the Treaty of Lunville in 1801. As the French annexed these lands, leaders believed that rulers of states such as Baden, Bavaria, Wrttemberg, Prussia, Hesse and Nassau, who lost territories on the Left Bank, should receive new territories on the Right Bank through the secularization of ecclesiastical principalities. Many of these rulers gave out bribes in order to secure new lands, and Talleyrand and some of his associates amassed about 10 million francs in the process. This was the first blow in the destruction of the Holy Roman Empire. 

Napoleon forced Talleyrand into marriage in September 1802 to longtime mistress Catherine Grand (ne Worle). Talleyrand purchased the Chteau de Valenay in May 1803, upon the urging of Napoleon. This later was used as the site of imprisonment of the Spanish Royalty in 1808-1813, after Napoleon's invasion of Spain. 

In May 1804, Napoleon bestowed upon Talleyrand the title of Grand Chamberlain of the Empire. In 1806, he was made Sovereign Prince of Benevento (or Bnvent), a former papal fief in southern Italy. Talleyrand held the title until 1815 and administered the principality concurrently with his other tasks. 

Talleyrand was opposed to the harsh treatment of Austria in the 1805 Treaty of Pressburg and of Prussia in the Peace of Tilsit in 1807. In 1806, after Pressburg, he profited greatly from the reorganization of the German lands, this time into the Confederation of the Rhine. But Talleyrand was shut out completely from the negotiations at Tilsit. After Queen Louise of Prussia failed in her appeal to Napoleon to spare her nation, she wept and was consoled by Talleyrand. This gave him a good name among the elites of European nations outside France. 

Having wearied of serving a master in whom he no longer had much confidence, Talleyrand resigned as minister of foreign affairs in 1807, although the Emperor retained him in the Council of State as Vice-Grand Elector of the Empire. He disapproved of Napoleon's Spanish initiative, which resulted in the Peninsular War beginning in 1808. At the Congress of Erfurt in September-October 1808, Talleyrand secretly counseled Tsar Alexander. The Tsar's attitude towards Napoleon was one of apprehensive opposition. Talleyrand repaired the confidence of the Russian monarch, who rebuked Napoleon's attempts to form a direct anti-Austrian military alliance. Napoleon had expected Talleyrand to help convince the Tsar to accept his proposals and never discovered that Talleyrand was working at cross-purposes. Talleyrand believed Napoleon would eventually destroy the empire he had worked to build across multiple rulers.

@@10	The Vatican

From 1790 the Papal States were profoundly affected by the French Revolution and the subsequent wars of Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1791 Avignon removed itself from papal control and was annexed by France. In 1797 Napoleons conquest of Milan and his seizure of several papal territories was confirmed by a treaty that established the Cisalpine Republic. 

Two years later, French forces invaded the remaining area of the Papal States and General Louis-Alexandre Berthier declared a Roman Republic (February 1798). Pope Pius VI fled to Siena, and died in exile in Valence (France) in 1799. The French Consulate restored the Papal States in June 1800 and the newly-elected Pope Pius VII took up residency in Rome, but the French Empire under Napoleon invaded in 1808, and this time on 17 May 1809, the remainder of the States of the Church were annexed to France, forming the dpartements of Tibre and Trasimne.

Pius VII (1800-23) sought peace with France and even presided over Napoleons imperial coronation in 1804. But the relationship between the two men deteriorated, and in 1809 the Papal States were annexed once again and Pius was taken prisoner.

Following the fall of the Napoleonic system in 1814, the Congress of Vienna officially restored the Italian territories of the Papal States (but not the Comtat Venaissin or Avignon) to Vatican control.

@@11	The Royal Society

On 28 November 1660, the 1660 committee of 12 announced the formation of a "College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematical Experimental Learning", which would meet weekly to discuss science and run experiments. 

At the second meeting, Sir Robert Moray announced that the King approved of the gatherings, and a royal charter was signed on 15 July 1662 which created the "Royal Society of London", with Lord Brouncker serving as the first president. 

A second royal charter was signed on 23 April 1663, with the king noted as the founder and with the name of "the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge"; Robert Hooke was appointed as Curator of Experiments in November. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society.

@@12	British Admiralty

@@13	St-Paul's Cathedral

A Roman temple to Diana may once have stood on the site, but the first Christian cathedral there was dedicated to St. Paul in ad 604, during the rule of King Aethelberht I. That cathedral burned, and its replacement (built 675685) was destroyed by Viking raiders in 962. In 1087 a third cathedral erected on the site also burned.

The fourth cathedral, now known as Old St. Pauls, was constructed of Caen stone beginning in the late 11th century. It was one of the more massive buildings in the British Isles at that time, and its spire stood higher than the dome of the present cathedral. During the English Reformation (16th century) the edifice fell into disrepair, and its nave was used as a marketplace. The spire was destroyed by lightning (and a resulting fire) in 1561 and never replaced. Major repairs were initiated in the 1630s by Inigo Jones, who oversaw the removal of shops, the renovation of walls, and the building of a much-admired portico on the western side. During the English Civil Wars (164251), however, the structure was severely damaged by Cromwellian cavalry troops who used it as a barracks. In the 1660s Christopher Wren was enlisted to survey and repair the cathedral, but it was destroyed in the Great Fire of London (1666) before work could begin.

Wren subsequently designed and oversaw the construction of the present cathedral, which was built mainly of Portland stone. His plans were approved in 1675, and work was carried out until 1710. During the 19th century some decorative changes were made to the interior of the cathedral in an attempt to bring it in line with Victorian tastes

Many notable soldiers, artists, and intellectuals have been buried in its crypt, including Lord Nelson, the duke of Wellington, and Wren himself, who was one of the first to be entombed there. Above his resting place is the epitaph composed by his son, ending with the oft-quoted sentence Lector, si monumentum requiris, circumspice, which may be translated Reader, if you seek a monument, look about you.

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@@15	Hofburg Palast

For over 600 years the Hofburg Palast was the residence of the Austrian sovereigns. Over the course of the centuries it developed into one of the most important centres of European history. It was from here that the Habsburgs reigned from the 13th century, at first as rulers of the Austrian patrimonial lands, from 1452 as emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, and finally as emperors of Austria from 1806 until the end of the monarchy in 1918.

Originally a medieval fortified castle dating from the 13th century, the Hofburg was extended by each emperor. The sprawling, asymmetric complex which extends over 240,000 m consists of 18 wings, 19 courtyards and 2,600 rooms in which nearly 5,000 people still work and live today.

The oldest part of the Hofburg is the Alte Burg (Old Fortress), which since the 18th century has been called the Schweizertrakt (Swiss Wing) after the Swiss Guards who served as the palace watch.

Following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the chancellery was converted into residential suites for the imperial family. From the middle of the 19th century they were occupied by Emperor Franz Joseph.

@@16	L'Institut de France

It is to the Thermidorians, so much hated in their day, that we owe the foundation of the Institut de France. Under the Terror the academies were suppressed because of their aristocratic background. The victors of Robespierre were keen to show that the Republic needed scientists and according to article 298 of the 1795 constitution, they were to be brought together in a national institute "charged with collecting discoveries and perfecting the arts and sciences".

The Institute was recruited by cooptation, the first nominees choosing their colleagues. The entire Institute, the list of members, divided into three classes and sections, was published in the National Almanac. The first class was that for science, while the second was dedicated to the moral and political sciences, and the third class to literature and fine arts.

The most illustrious member of the Institute was General Bonaparte. He was elected on December 25, 1797 to the mechanical arts section of the science section to replace Carnot. On this occasion he wrote a letter of thanks which the Moniteur published: "The suffrage of the distinguished men who make up the Institute honors me. I feel that before being their equal I will be their schoolboy for a long time. If there was a more expressive way to let them know the esteem I have for them, I would use it.

The real conquests, the only ones that give no regrets, are those that are made over ignorance. The most honorable occupation, as well as the most useful for the nations, is to contribute to the spread of human ideas. The real power of the French Republic must now consist in not allowing a new idea to exist that it does not belong to it."

@@17	The British Trade

France had a population of 27,350,000 in 1801 as opposed to Great Britains 10,942,146 and had gained much territory in the warfare since 1792. However, a significant advance in economic strength was to enable Great Britain to wage war against this formidable adversary and to achieve the , miracles of credit, whereby foreign military assistance could be subsidized. The French, whose manufactures progressed less dramatically than the British and whose seaborne trade had been strangled, found it impossible to raise funds commensurate with their aggressive policy in Europe, so that Napoleon had to rely on the spoils of conquest to supplement the deficiencies of French finance.

Many of the figures for British overseas trade during the period represent official values based on a scale of prices current in the 1690s, regardless of market value. Useful only for comparison, the official scale shows that exports rose from 20,000,000 in 1790 to 53,500,000 in 1814, increasing by 75 percent between 1790 and 1801 and by 51 percent between 1801 and 1814. The total expenditure of the British government in 1793 was 30,590,000, of which war services amounted to 10,340,000 (nearly twice the figure for peacetime); in 1814 these sums had increased to 163,790,000 and 69,070,000 respectively.

Great Britain had superior banking services, could suspend payments in gold at home, and was preponderant in the European money market. France by contrast was financially hampered by a national economy and financial machinery ill-constituted to produce government credit, by the virtual impossibility of inflating the metallic currency, and by potential investors lack of confidence in the regime.

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@@21	Westminster Palace

Its name, which is derived from the neighbouring Westminster Abbey, may refer to either of two structures: the Old Palace, a medieval building complex destroyed by fire in 1834, or its replacement, the New Palace that stands today. The palace is owned by the monarch in right of the Crown and, for ceremonial purposes, retains its original status as a royal residence. The building is managed by committees appointed by both houses, which report to the Speaker of the House of Commons and the Lord Speaker. 

The first royal palace was built on the site in the 11th century, and Westminster was the primary residence of the Kings of England until fire destroyed much of the complex in 1512. After that, it served as the home of the Parliament of England, which had been meeting there since the 13th century, and also as the seat of the Royal Courts of Justice, based in and around Westminster Hall. 

In 1834, an even greater fire ravaged the heavily rebuilt Houses of Parliament, and the only significant medieval structures to survive were Westminster Hall, the Cloisters of St Stephen's, the Chapel of St Mary Undercroft, and the Jewel Tower. 

The Palace is one of the centres of political life in the United Kingdom; "Westminster" has become a metonym for the UK Parliament, and the Westminster system of government has taken its name after it. The Elizabeth Tower, in particular, which is often referred to by the name of its main bell, Big Ben, is an iconic landmark of London and the United Kingdom in general, one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city, and an emblem of parliamentary democracy. Tsar Nicholas I of Russia called the palace "a dream in stone". The Palace of Westminster has been a Grade I listed building since 1970 and part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987. 

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@@27	Orthodox Church

The so-called Patriotic War of 1812 was not only a military and political clash between states, but also a conflict between two civilizations. Many contemporaries saw the events as a struggle to defend Orthodox, monarchist, and aristocratic Russia from the onslaught of a godless and de-Christianized post-Revolutionary France. 

The impression of a spiritual and religious attack by Napoleon on Christianity was created: the persecution of the Church and the clergy during the French Revolution, the introduction of the new Republican calendar and the ascendancy of the new cult of Reason; Napoleons overly pragmatic and unscrupulous stance on religion; and, despite the 1801 Concordat with Rome, the frequent clashes with Pope Pius VII that ended in 1809 with the excommunication of the French emperor and the imprisonment of the Roman Pontiff. 

Perceived as having soaked half of Europe in blood, and having plundered and desecrated the Orthodox churches, the Grande Arme was seen by many in Russia as an evil force with the Antichrist at its head - Satans henchman who was prophesied to appear on earth shortly before the Second Coming of Christ to unite all the forces of evil in war against the Christian Church.

This perception was encouraged by the actions of Tsar Alexander I, who unleashed a veritable propaganda war against Napoleon, placing great emphasis on the 1812 conflict as a struggle of the people and the Orthodox religion against the invading forces of the Grande Arme, and by the actions of the Orthodox Church itself, which imbued the war with religious and spiritual significance. Unlike the French emperor, Alexander I not only avoided conflict with the Church, but appeared to act in close unity with it.

@UNIT_DESCRIPTIONS

@@UNIT_INDEX		
0,	;	DO NOT USE
1,	;	Sapeurs
2,	;	Gendarmes
3,	;	A. Landwehr
4,	;	O. Provincial
5,	;	P. Landwehr
6,	;	S. Militia
7,	;	O. Janissaries
8,	;	R. Opolchenye
9,	;	Guerrilla
10,	;	Napolon I
11,	;	Garde Impriale
12,	;	Rgiment de Ligne
13,	;	Infanterie Lgre
14,	;	Carabiniers
15,	;	Cuirassiers
16,	;	Lanciers
17,	;	Grenadier  Cheval
18,	;	O. Nezam-I Cedid
19,	;	O. Mamluk Sipahi
20,	;	O. Yoruk
21,	;	S. Line Infantry
22,	;	S. Light Infantry
23,	;	Art.  pied 8lb
24,	;	O. Artillery
25,	;	Art.  Cheval
26,	;	Mortier de 12po.
27,	;	Wellington
28,	;	K.G.L.
29,	;	B. Line Infantry
30,	;	B. Light Infantry
31,	;	Dragoon Guards
32,	;	Light Dragoon
33,	;	B. Foot Artillery
34,	;	B. Horse Artillery
35,	;	Nelson
36,	;	Kutusov
37,	;	Customs Warehouse
38,	;	R. Line Infantry
39,	;	R. Light Infantry
40,	;	R. Cuirassiers
41,	;	Don Cossack
42,	;	R. Foot Artillery
43,	;	R. Horse Artillery
44,	;	Mortar Shells
45,	;	6 pdr Shells
46,	;	8 pdr Shells
47,	;	Hussars
48,	;	Train Militaire
49,	;	Plunder
50,	;	S. Line Cavalry
51,	;	Minor Fort
52,	;	Major Fort
53,	;	Village
54,	;	Charles
55,	;	Schwarzenberg
56,	;	A. Line Infantry
57,	;	A. Light Infantry
58,	;	A. Krassier
59,	;	A. Uhlans
60,	;	A. Foot Artillery
61,	;	A. Horse Artillery
62,	;	S. Foot Artillery
63,	;	Blcher
64,	;	Yorck
65,	;	P. Line Infantry
66,	;	P. Light Infantry
67,	;	P. Krassier
68,	;	P. Uhlans
69,	;	P. Foot Artillery
70,	;	P. Horse Artillery
71,	;	Cuesta
72,	;	Soult
73,	;	Davout
74,	;	Lannes
75,	;	Murat
76,	;	Moore
77,	;	Uxbridge
78,	;	Bagration
79,	;	Barclay de Tolly
80,	;	Blake
81,	;	18 pdr Shells
82,	;	Bombard Shells
83,	;	Bombarde
84,	;	Frigate
85,	;	Two Decker
86,	;	Three Decker
87,	;	Coalition Shells
88,	;	Transport
89,	;	Villeneuve
90,	;	Neapolitan Infantry
91,	;	Sicilian Infantry
92,	;	Irish Rebel
93,	;	Bavarian Infantry
94,	;	Bavarian Cavalry
95,	;	Danish Infantry
96,	;	Danish Cavalry
97,	;	Italian Infantry
98,	;	Italian Cavalry
99,	;	Rhine Infantry
100,	;	Polish Infantry
101,	;	Polish Lancers
102,	;	Dutch Infantry
103,	;	Dutch Cavalry
104,	;	Westphalian Infantry
105,	;	Westphalian Cavalry
106,	;	Wrtemberg Infantry
107,	;	Border
108,	;	Swiss Infantry
109,	;	Brunswick Infantry
110,	;	Brunswick Cavalry
111,	;	Portuguese Infantry
112,	;	Portuguese Cavalry
113,	;	Saxon Infantry
114,	;	Saxon Cavalry
115,	;	Swedish Infantry
116,	;	Swedish Cavalry
117,	;	Frgate
118,	;	Deux-ponts
119,	;	Trois-ponts
120,	;	24 pdr Shells
121,	;	Royal Marines
122,	;	Art.  pied 12lb
123,	;	12 pdr Shells
124,	;	Garde Frontalier
125,	;	32 pdr Shells
126,	;	Poniatowski
-2,	; 	MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!


@@00 DO NOT USE

The DO NOT USE (formerly the 'Constabulary' unit in version 1.0) occupies the Settler spot in the unit.bmp icon grid. 

The Constabulary units were never meant to be used in the game. I originally placed them in the unit list because whenever a power would capture an enemy city, the default item that would show up in the production queue would always be the Constabulary (aka Settler unit), which I didnt want.

This would occur even if I set the prerequisite for the unit to NO in the rules.txt file. Instead, by giving them very low stats (1a, 1d,1HP, 1FP), I thought most players would simply ignore them but as I discovered afterwards many ended up building them all the same.

To avoid this in the future, I've replaced the Constabulary icon with the DOT NOT USE one, lowered its stats to 0 and now the event file will delete, at the end of each turn, any of these units that may have been built.

@@01	Sapeurs

A sapper, also called pioneer or combat engineer, is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties such as breaching fortifications, demolitions, bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, preparing field defenses, as well as working on road and airfield construction and repair. They are also trained to serve as infantry personnel in defensive and offensive operations. A sapper's duties are devoted to tasks involving facilitating movement, defence and survival of allied forces and impeding those of enemies.

The French Corps of Engineers was created under the command of Marshall Vauban during the late 17th century. Its members were called sappers if their function was to destroy enemy fortifications by using trenches or sape and miners if they engaged in tunnel warfare or mine. The Corps of the Engineers was suppressed during two short periods (1720-1729 and 1769-1793) and sappers and miners were part of the Artillery regiments. In 1793, the Corps was reorganized into companies of miners and battalions of sappers, each assigned to a particular division. 

Eventually, as the missions of the Corps grew more diversified, additional titles were used by combat engineers, such as Conductor (sapeur-conducteur) in 1810, entrusted with the logistics of the Corps, Firefighter (sapeur-pompier) in 1810 or telegraph sapper (sapeur-tlgraphiste). In 1814, the companies of miners were integrated into the sapper battalions, themselves organized in Engineers Regiments (rgiments du gnie).  

@@02	Gendarmes

The National Guard is a militia armed with muskets and bayonets, and relatively cheap to recruit. 

When considered against other militias, the National Guard is clearly a superior force. However, they should not be expected to stand against regular military units; they are an armed police force, intended to keep order. In battle, they lack confidence, and may run. They are, however, useful garrison troops, can maintain public order, and are inexpensive to recruit and pay. 

The French National Guard was formed in 1789, a result of la Grande Peur, or the Great Fear. Failed harvests led to unrest and the National Assembly needed a police force. The Troupes Provinciales were unreliable because they were recruited, by lottery, from the peasantry who were the source of the unrest. The National Guard, on the other hand, attracted the middle classes to its ranks, if only because guardsmen were expected to pay for their own uniforms and equipment. That social difference made them a more reliable force.

@@03	A. Landwehr

Landwehr soldiers are armed with muskets and bayonets, and are quite capable of defending their homes. 

They are also equal to the job of quelling troublesome civilians, but their lack of training means that they should not be expected to fight as well as regular soldiers. These are the people-in-arms, not a hardened force of veterans. Against well-handled and disciplined soldiers, they will suffer heavy losses. They are, however, a useful force of garrison troops, and can help keep order at relatively low cost. 

In 1812 Prussia had been compelled to aid Napoleons invasion of Russia. General Yorck, the officer in charge of the Prussian Auxiliary Corps, was a well-respected patriot, and an experienced soldier. It was obvious to him that the French were going to be defeated, so he declared his corps neutral and aided the Russians in taking East Prussia. As East Prussia, if not the whole country, was at war with France, an army was needed to defend it and the result was the recruitment of a large body of Landwehr militia. Yorcks decision to defy the French produced the Russo-Prussian alliance of 1813, a significant bloc against Napoleons France. 

@@04	O. Provincial

These musket-armed troops are recruited to defend their own locality, not carry the war to an enemys land. 

Militia or provincial troops are commonly held to be inferior to regular soldiers and, although they are trained to use the same tactics as marching regiments of the line, there is some truth in this assertion. Militia are expected to act as reassuring presence, and sometimes as a police force in suppressing local disturbances. 

Historically, it was not unusual for militia to be locals recruited as part-time soldiers while retaining their day jobs and trades. In Britain, for example, service in the militia was seen as a good idea: you not only looked very patriotic for volunteering, but you could not be sent overseas! For ambitious would-be officers, there was a hidden financial benefit to joining the militia. A commander who could persuade his men to transfer to the army with him would not have to pay the cost of his regular commission. 

@@05	P. Landwehr

Landwehr soldiers are armed with muskets and bayonets, and are quite capable of defending their homes. 

They are also equal to the job of quelling troublesome civilians, but their lack of training means that they should not be expected to fight as well as regular soldiers. These are the people-in-arms, not a hardened force of veterans. Against well-handled and disciplined soldiers, they will suffer heavy losses. They are, however, a useful force of garrison troops, and can help keep order at relatively low cost. 

In 1812 Prussia had been compelled to aid Napoleons invasion of Russia. General Yorck, the officer in charge of the Prussian Auxiliary Corps, was a well-respected patriot, and an experienced soldier. It was obvious to him that the French were going to be defeated, so he declared his corps neutral and aided the Russians in taking East Prussia. As East Prussia, if not the whole country, was at war with France, an army was needed to defend it and the result was the recruitment of a large body of Landwehr militia. Yorcks decision to defy the French produced the Russo-Prussian alliance of 1813, a significant bloc against Napoleons France. 

@@06	S. Militia

These musket-armed troops are recruited to defend their own locality, not carry the war to an enemys land. 

Militia or provincial troops are commonly held to be inferior to regular soldiers and, although they are trained to use the same tactics as marching regiments of the line, there is some truth in this assertion. Militia are expected to act as reassuring presence, and sometimes as a police force in suppressing local disturbances. 

Historically, it was not unusual for militia to be locals recruited as part-time soldiers while retaining their day jobs and trades. In Britain, for example, service in the militia was seen as a good idea: you not only looked very patriotic for volunteering, but you could not be sent overseas! For ambitious would-be officers, there was a hidden financial benefit to joining the militia. A commander who could persuade his men to transfer to the army with him would not have to pay the cost of his regular commission. 

@@07	O. Janissaries

Janissaries are recruited from among the children of janissary families, which gives them a sense of camaraderie and superiority. 

They are armed with muskets and swords, making them equally useful in the firing line or in melee. They are, however, vulnerable to cavalry as their training does not include formal drills to form square for protection. They do not wear armour, despite appearing rather old-fashioned compared to european troops. 

Janissaries were always an elite group within the Ottoman military, although by the end of the eighteenth century they were no longer necessarily numbered among the best soldiers in the world. Originally, janissaries had been recruited from among Christian boy children within Ottoman lands, as troops under the direct control of the Sultan and as a counter to his more powerful vassals. The practice of taking children in this way was gradually abandoned, and by the 18th Century the janissaries were a power in their own right. The Cairo janissaries were almost exclusively recruited from among Arabic Egyptians. Turkish members of the larger corps did their best to make sure that the janissaries, and their own families, gained and kept control of the plum jobs within the Ottoman administration. As a result, they ceased to be a purely military force and became a highly conservative group, determined to fight any reform within the Empire that reduced their influence. 


@@08	R. Opolchenye

Militia are often poorly equipped and trained, but are ideal for maintaining public order. 

Men in the militia rarely expect to be sent into battle. It is their lot to act as reserves, or local law enforcers. As a result, if they do find themselves on a battlefield, they should be expected to run away, and not handle their weaponry with any great proficiency. Militia may appear useless, then, but they are cheap to maintain and as plentiful as any bureaucrat could want. 

In 1806, despite previous unfortunate experiences with disgruntled peasants, the Russian state recruited 600,000 serfs into the opelchenie, a militia. Training was basic, and weaponry similarly simple: the opelchenie were given pikes. After the French invasion of 1812 the opelchenie was no longer limited to serfs, and another 200,000 recruits joined in a national wave of patriotism. Some of this new cohort of serfs brought their own pitchforks and shovels as weapons. 

@@09	Guerrilla

These men are not soldiers, but civilians driven to take up arms against their nations enemies. 

Guerrillas are not a recognised military organisation at all, but bands of friends and neighbours who have adapted banditry to be a way of making war. They fight hard, because if they are captured they can expect little mercy from an enemy: at best, a trial before inevitable execution. War and vendetta are often the same thing for guerrillas: wrongs done and the resulting hatred are what drive them to fight. They are best when employed in ambush, or to skirmish and harass. They cannot be expected to fight in carefully dressed lines like soldiers, because they are not soldiers. 

Historically, the Spanish people had an enormous capacity for carrying on wars against foreign occupiers long after their rulers had capitulated or made their peace with an enemy. Guerrillas arose as an act of rebellion. The name itself is Spanish, and means little war: the constant skirmishing and sniping that wears out an occupying army. When his men were bogged down there, Napoleon described Spain as an ulcer, thanks in part to the constant partisan warfare carried on by the guerrillas.

@@10	Napolon I

Napoleon Bonaparte, French emperor, was one of the greatest military leaders in history. He helped remake the map of Europe and established many government and legal reforms, but constant battles eventually led to his downfall. 

Landing at Frjus, France, in October 1799, after his failed invasion of Egypt, Napoleon went directly to Paris, where he helped overthrow the Directory, a five-man executive body that had replaced the king. Napoleon was named first consul, or head of the government, and he received almost unlimited powers. After Austria and England ignored his calls for peace, he led an army into Italy and defeated the Austrians in the Battle of Marengo (1800). This brought Italy back under French control. 

The Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 ended the war with England for the time being. Napoleon also restored harmony between the Roman Catholic Church and the French government. He improved conditions within France as well by, among other things, establishing the Bank of France, reorganizing education, and reforming France's legal system with a new set of laws known as the Code Napoleon. 

By 1802 the popular Napoleon was given the position of first consul for life, with the right to name his replacement. In 1804 he had his title changed to emperor. War resumed after a new coalition was formed against France. In 1805 the British destroyed French naval power in the Battle of Trafalgar. Napoleon, however, was able to defeat Russia and Austria in the Battle of Austerlitz. In 1806 Napoleon's forces destroyed the Prussian army; after the Russians came to the aid of Prussia and were defeated themselves, Alexander I (17771825) of Russia made peace at Tilsit in June 1807. Napoleon was now free to reorganize western and central Europe as he pleased. After Sweden was defeated in 1808 with Russia's help, only England remained to oppose Napoleon. 

Napoleon was unable to invade England because of its superior naval forces. He decided to introduce the Continental System, a blockade designed to close all the ports of Europe to British trade. He hoped this would force the British to make peace on French terms. In Spain in 1808 the Peninsular War broke out over Spanish opposition to the placement of Napoleon's brother Joseph on the throne. The English helped Spain in this battle, which kept French troops occupied until 1814. In addition, Alexander I's decision to end Russia's cooperation with the Continental System led Napoleon to launch an invasion of that country in 1812. Lack of supplies, cold weather, and disease led to the deaths of five hundred thousand of Napoleon's troops. 

Napoleon had his marriage to Josephine dissolved and then, in March 1810, he married Marie Louise, the daughter of Emperor Francis II of Austria. Despite this union, Austria declared war on him in 1813. In March 1814 Paris fell to a coalition made up of Britain, Prussia, Sweden, and Austria. Napoleon stepped down in April. Louis XVIII (17551824), the brother of Louis XVI, was placed on the French throne. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba, but after ten months he made plans to return to power. He landed in southern France in February 1815 with 1,050 soldiers and marched to Paris, where he reinstated himself to power. Louis XVIII fled, and Napoleon's new reign began. The other European powers gathered to oppose him, and Napoleon was forced to return to war. 

The Battle of Waterloo was over within a week. On June 18, 1815, the combined British and Prussian armies defeated Napoleon. He returned to Paris and stepped down for a second time on June 22. He had held power for exactly one hundred days. Napoleon at first planned to go to America, but he surrendered to the British on July 3. He was sent into exile on the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. There he spent his remaining years until he died of cancer on May 5, 1821. 

@@11	Garde Impriale

Veterans of Napoleons Imperial Guard, these men are an elite force of musket-armed soldiers. 

These highly trained and experienced troops are handpicked by Napoleon and act as part of his personal guard. Taken from the ranks of the Imperial Guard, the Old Guard is made up of the most intimidating soldiers the French army has to offer. Chosen specifically for their physical attributes and notably above average height, these men strike fear into the hearts of Napoleons enemies. Their prowess as soldiers is world-renowned and the mere presence of these men on the battlefield can inspire even war weary fellow Frenchmen to fight on. 

After his dramatic defeat in Russia, Napoleon bid farewell to the Old Guard. These men were his few remaining loyal soldiers but, with no support in Paris, Napoleon was forced to disband them. However, following Napoleons return from exile in 1815, they were recalled and marched triumphantly back to Paris with their leader. The end of the Old Guard came at the Battle of Waterloo where they were routed for the first and only time. For many of the French soldiers fighting that day, the retreat of the Old Guard was the end of the battle and the end of Napoleon himself.

@@12	Rgiment de Ligne

Line infantry are the mainstay of any army. They form the battle line and are skilled with muskets and bayonets. 

Fusiliers advance upon the enemy, firing volley after volley before they close with fixed bayonets. Although they are foot soldiers, and lack the dash and lan of cavalry, they take a justifiable pride in their worth in battle. They can form square when threatened by cavalry, and give other enemy infantry a bloody time but they are still vulnerable to shelling by artillery and sniping by skirmishers. 

The fusiliers were considered the ordinary soldiers of Napoleons army. They enjoyed little of the prestige and privileges showered on the Emperors precious guards, his artillery formations, or the light troops. Yet they were vital to his victories: strong, dependable and loyal to Napoleon. They could be counted on to do his marshals bidding in almost every circumstance. 

@@13	Infanterie Lgre

These men are light infantry, adept at harassing the enemy and screening the main army. 

These versatile veterans can form a disciplined line to deliver a massed volley, or switch to a loose skirmishing formation to harass and thin out enemy formations. Although their experience in battle means they fire their muskets with a good degree of accuracy, their flexibility also means they lack certain specialised qualities. They are not quite as accurate as other skirmishers nor as devastating as line infantry when firing in volleys. They also lack the ability to form square, which leaves them vulnerable to cavalry charges.

@@14	Carabiniers



@@15	Cuirassiers

Cuirassiers are intended to charge and break enemy units in vicious melee combat. 

Equipped with heavy, straight swords and wearing armour, cuirassiers are melee cavalry. If the cuirassiers can get in among their foes, then they can do bloody work and have some protection in the fight granted by their cuirasses and heavy helmets. They are rightly feared by enemy infantry, and other cavalry forces are foolish not to treat them with a degree of respect. The price paid for this imposing strength is in speed: cuirassiers are far from swift, dashing cavalrymen. They are heavyweights, and killers. 

In many ways, Cuirassiers hark back to an older style of warfare: cavalrymen had always been armoured, until the widespread use of firearms meant that armour was more trouble than it was worth. The magnificence of their appearance, however, added to their worth on the battlefield. Their Minerva style helmets merely added to the impression that here was a unit of giants. The effect was intended to be quite intimidating, and it worked: cuirassiers were always big men on big horses, heavily armoured and well trained to use shock against any weak enemy. The French army eventually abandoned the cuirass as an item of field equipment in 1915.

@@16	Lanciers

These cavalrymen are each armed with a lance, which make them particularly deadly when charging. 

The lance is probably among the oldest of cavalry weapons. It gives the user a chance to put all his weight and that of his charging horse into one very sharp point. A lance that can, in skilled hands, be driven right through any enemy. When coupled with the fast pace of their horses, a lancers charge is very intimidating. However, if the lancer does not kill his target, he leaves himself vulnerable. A long lance is less use in a melee than a sword, and a lancer is at a disadvantage once the close fighting starts, especially against well-trained infantry capable of forming square. 

Historically, many nations used lancers. The French army adopted lancers with some enthusiasm, and Napoleon even included Polish lancers in his Imperial Guard. In India the lance had long been used as a weapon: lancer skills were often practiced by pegging, picking tent pegs out of the ground with the lance tip, or pig-sticking, the hunting of wild pigs or even wild dogs with the lance. 

@@17	Grenadier  Cheval

These elite heavy cavalrymen are exceptional in close combat. Their straight heavy swords make short work of enemies. 

Grenadiers  Cheval ride the largest and strongest steeds. Although relatively slow, their charge into an enemy is almost certain to do terrible damage. Once in close combat, the grenadiers are strong enough to continue the slaughter. They may meet their match charging against infantry in square, or in a fight with well-disciplined elite infantry but, even then, they embrace death with the same resolve they display in attack. 

To modern eyes, the concept of a mounted grenadier looks more than a little odd: surely the horses would panic at the first grenade explosion? Like all other grenadiers, the Grenadiers  Cheval were large men, chosen for their physical qualities. To be admitted to the grenadiers, a man had to been cited for bravery, have several campaigns under his belt, and be a strapping fellow. Mounted on large black horses, and resplendent in their bearskins, they made for an intimidating presence and were nicknamed The Giants or The Gods by their fellow Frenchmen.

@@18	O. Nezam-I Cedid

These troops of the new model army are armed, equipped and trained in the latest Western European military fashion. 

Fighting in formal order with tight control and disciplined fire is a new idea for Turkish forces; the traditional method has usually involved heavily armed and very brave men hurling themselves pell-mell at the enemy. The nizam-I cedit fight just as bravely, but with much more organisation. This new model army is such a break with the past that it has even adopted Western-style military dress for the most part. 

Historically, the Nizam-I Cedit reforms were made vital by the repeatedly poor performance of the Ottoman armies against the Russians. The Empires inability to defend itself against a growing Slavic threat, and European predatory moves, was the reason why Turkey became the sick man of Europe. 

The French Revolutionary Republic (anxious for any allies at the time) provided much of the starting expertise that the Ottomans required for retraining their army in modern tactics and methods. The process was not without problems, though. The janissaries resented their loss of privileges and position and eventually the corps had to be disbanded. 

@@19	O. Mameluke 

Mamelukes are fearless light horsemen, deadly when deployed against a broken or unsupported enemy. 

Mounted on tireless light horses and armed with scimitars, they are commonly employed to harass an enemy force, restricting its space to manoeuvre easily. Once battle is fully joined, they will often time their charges to coincide with those of a supporting infantry unit, seeking to break the enemy quickly then wreaking havoc amongst them as they flee. 

Mamelukes were traditionally slave soldiers of the various caliphs and sultans of the Middle Ages, captured as children and raised in the Islamic faith to provide their master with a force of men unconnected to any other part of the hierarchy. Over time, the Mamelukes accrued power of their own and even went as far as seizing control of Egypt; they founded a Mameluke Sultanate in 1250. Though the Mamelukes strength enabled the Sultanate to repel several invasions by Christian crusaders and Mongols, it was eventually overpowered by the Ottoman Empire in 1517. The Mamelukes so came into the service of the Sublime Porte.

@@20	O. Sipahi

Sipahis are superb horsemen and their ornate lances are deadly when brought to bear at the charge. 

They are unswervingly faithful and proudly deserving of their elite status. Mounted on the finest horseflesh, they carry ornate lances into battle which are deadly when brought to bear at the charge. When delivered in the flanks or rear of an enemy formation, such a charge often proves decisive to the course of a battle. 

As fief-holders, Sipahis are granted the income from a parcel of land in exchange for their military service, and they are also expected to supply a number of armed men. Highly disciplined and enjoying the high status common to many cavalry corps, Sipahis see themselves as superior to the sometimes unruly Janissaries, with whom they maintain a simmering rivalry. A contributing factor to this is that Sipahis are all ethnic Turks, whereas the Janissaries are of mixed stock, recruited as children from provincial Christian families and converted to the Islamic faith. Regardless of these petty concerns, Sipahis represent the best horsemen available to the Sublime Porte. 

@@21	S. Line Infantry

Line infantry are the mainstay of any army. They form the battle line and are skilled with muskets and bayonets. 

Fusiliers advance upon the enemy, firing volley after volley before they close with fixed bayonets. Although they are foot soldiers, and lack the dash and lan of cavalry, they take a justifiable pride in their worth in battle. They can form square when threatened by cavalry, and give other enemy infantry a bloody time but they are still vulnerable to shelling by artillery and sniping by skirmishers. 

@@22	S. Light Infantry

Light infantry are skirmishers who harass the enemy while screening the main body of an army. 

These men are versatile soldiers: whether firing in a disciplined line or skirmishing in loose formation, they bring a good self-discipline and accuracy to the battle. They carry smoothbore, muzzle-loading muskets, but do not rely on massed fire. Instead they aim at individuals within the enemy ranks, killing officers, sergeants and anyone else who takes charge. They also fight their own specialised battle, driving off enemy skirmishers. However, they may prove weak when pitted against line infantry or highly expert skirmishers such as riflemen. 

@@23	Art.  pied 8lb

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved. Napoleon was an artilleryman, and his use of guns in concentration against small parts of the enemy battle line persuaded many nations to increase the size of their own artillery corps. 

@@24	O. Artillery

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved.

@@25	Art.  Cheval

To keep up with fast moving cavalry, horse artillery batteries put entire gun crews on horseback or the horse-drawn limbers. 

The cannon used by horse artillery lack range and firepower compared to other artillery pieces. This is considered unimportant; speed is all! Horse artillery units can move guns to a firing position, deploy, and then remove themselves with some despatch. They can be where they are needed to support and attack or break an enemy advance. They are a tactical reserve that any general will welcome, or a means to exploit a weakness in the enemy line. 

Historically, Frederick the Great of Prussia observed that even the smallest artillery piece could be enough to break enemy defensive formations, leaving them open to subsequent attacks by infantry. He concluded that speed and mobility, rather than simple weight of shot, was important. This observation lead him to order the development of a galloper gun, and a six-pounder that could be dragged at the gallop. Fredericks contribution to military tactics was acknowledged by Napoleon himself, who considered the king a master tactician. 

@@26	Mortier de 12po.

The Mortier de 12 pouces Gribeauval (Gribeauval 12-inch mortar) was a French mortar and part of the Gribeauval system developed by Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval. It was part of the siege artillery. The measurement of the mortar is expressed by the diameter of the ball, using the French ancient system of measurement, in which 1 pouce (1 inch) is worth 2.707 cm. 

The Mortier de 12 pouces Gribeauval was used extensively during the wars following the French Revolution, as well as the Napoleonic wars. However, its first major operational use was even earlier, during the American Revolutionary War, in General Rochambeau's French expeditionary corps, from 1780 to late 1782, and especially at Yorktown in 1781.

To the uneducated eye, a mortar looks like a large, stumpy cooking pot, set at an angle in a heavy wooden frame. Indeed, the weapons name may even have come from its similarity to the mortars used to grind spices. Mortars use indirect fire, firing their shells high into the air to plunge down on enemy positions. This makes them ideal for use in siege warfare. 

Unlike a howitzer, a mortar uses a fixed, and relatively small, charge of gunpowder to propel its shell. Range is adjusted by changing the angle of fire; accuracy is subject to winds and weather, thanks to the flight path. There is also a practical minimum range to mortar fire: no artilleryman is going to drop a shell so close that he will be caught in the blast. Their size, expressed in terms of the diameter of shell they fire, indicates their destructiveness. 

@@27	Wellington

Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington, in full Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington, marquess of Douro, marquess of Wellington, earl of Wellington, Viscount Wellington of Talavera and of Wellington, Baron Douro or Wellesley, byname Iron Duke, (born May 1, 1769, Dublin, Irelanddied September 14, 1852, Walmer Castle, Kent, England), Irish-born commander of the British army during the Napoleonic Wars and later prime minister of Great Britain (182830). He first rose to military prominence in India, won successes in the Peninsular War in Spain (180814), and shared in the victory over Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo (1815).

Wellington twice reached the zenith of fame with a period of unexampled odium intervening. By defeating Napoleon at Waterloo he became the conqueror of the worlds conqueror. After Waterloo he joined a repressive government, and later, as prime minister, he resisted pressure for constitutional reform. False pride, however, never prevented him from retreating either on the field or in Parliament, and for the countrys sake he supported policies that he personally disapproved. In old age he was idolized as an incomparable public servantthe Great Duke. Reaction came after his death. He has been rated an overcautious general and, once, Britains worst 19th-century prime minister. Today there is widespread appreciation of his military genius and of his character as an honest and selfless politician, uncorrupted by vast prestige.

@@28	K.G.L.

These versatile light troops are capable of forming an ordered line as well as skirmishing in loose order. 

Recruited from the soldiers of the Hanoverian army and armed with muskets, these troops excel at both melee and range combat, where their accuracy and range are nearly unrivalled. This versatility makes them incredibly useful on the battlefield. Their only real vulnerability is when facing cavalry, as they are unable to form square, the standard defence against cavalry charges. 

All of Europe breathed a collective sigh in 1814. The Treaty of Fontainbleau brought an end to hostilities and halted Napoleons domination of Europe. The ink was barely dry on this agreement when the British government started to divide up Wellingtons army. Some were sent off to the war in America, others were discharged at home. The Kings German Legion was considered incredibly valuable and escaped this cull. However, all the non-Hanoverian troops were discharged or transferred to other foreign corps. As a result the numbers of the Legion were greatly reduced, leaving only 7,000 in the Legion at Waterloo, but they were all proud sons of Hanover! 

@@29	B. Line Infantry

These versatile troops form the line of battle, using volley fire to break the enemy before delivering a bayonet charge. 

Highly disciplined and calm in the face of the enemy, these men are well trained in line infantry tactics. They can be relied upon to perform their duties with stolid determination rather than with dash and fire in their bellies. Their close ranks can make them vulnerable to artillery bombardment and skirmishers, and they will be ripped apart by heavy cavalry charges if they are in line. To counter this last threat, the unit can be ordered to form square. As long as discipline holds, an infantry unit in square should be able to see off enemy cavalrymen. 

The weapon of the British line infantryman was the famous Brown Bess; a flintlock musket used, in various guises, from 1730 to 1830. Other nations had their own standard pattern of musket. The Brown Bess used a large heavy ball that would not fit into French muskets, meaning that British ammunition captured on the battlefield was useless. It could be melted down and recast, but not immediately fired at its former owners. The British discovered that, in times of crisis, it was possible to tap load a musket by banging the butt on the ground. The bullet was jogged down the barrel, and could then be fired. 

@@30	B. Light Infantry

These light troops are ideal for harassing the enemy from a distance. 

These light troops are trained to use their surroundings to their advantage, and use skirmish tactics to break and harass the enemy. This British regiment can also form an effective firing line when needed. The accuracy of their fire is excellent but they are weak against well-trained cavalry. Their inability to form square leaves them incredibly vulnerable; prolonged close combat is also inadvisable. 

The British army traditionally recruited its riflemen and light troops from German states, but as France expanded into Holland in 1799, Britain was forced to rethink its recruitment strategy as the north German states were no longer quite so accessible. Many of the foreign troops in British service had perished in the West Indies or been drafted into the 60th Royal Americans. With few light troops available, General John Moore established a camp at Shorncliffe, Kent in 1802 for the instruction of light infantry. It took a year before the first unit of line infantry was converted into a British light infantry regiment.

@@31	Dragoon Guards

These mounted men are a useful mobile force who excel at melee. 

Dragoon Guards are trained to fight on horseback and foot. They each carry a sabre and carbine musket but are only capable of firing when dismounted. Their slightly impetuous nature makes them less effective than other more disciplined cavalry units but their flexibility and skill in close-combat makes them incredibly valuable. Having the option to unleash these men at key strategic points on the field of battle can easily provide the upper hand over an ill-prepared enemy. 

Dragoons were often considered to be inferior soldiers by proper regiments of horse: not really cavalrymen with class, but jumped-up infantry. They did not need particularly good horses because they did not fight on horseback, so they were cheaper to equip and pay than regular cavalry. In the British Army the designation dragoon guards was used as a face-saving measure when real cavalry units were converted to dragoons; despite becoming a lower class unit, they kept their slightly elitist cavalry attitudes. The British Army still has dragoon guard units and they now use light tanks in reconnaissance and security roles. 

@@32	Light Dragoon

Light dragoons are mounted skirmishers, riding to a fight then engaging the enemy on foot. 

Dragoons horses are primarily for mobility, but they are also fast and can deliver a reasonably effective charge. These characteristics make light dragoons effective against skirmishers and artillery: they can close quickly enough to not suffer too many casualties. When mounted, they are effective with their curved sabres, but to use their carbines they must dismount first. On foot, they are vulnerable to enemies in melee. 

Historically, light dragoons often performed as a kind of police force, and were useful in suppressing riotous and rebellious civilians. Their horses give them strategic mobility, allowing them to control large areas and quickly come to the aid of the local, civil authorities. As the 18th Century drew to a close, they had lost their role as mounted infantry and most became another kind of light cavalry, although they retained the dragoon name. The officers and men welcomed the change, as proper cavalrymen had glamour for the ladies, a higher social status, and better pay rates! 

@@33	B. Foot Artillery

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved. Napoleon was an artilleryman, and his use of guns in concentration against small parts of the enemy battle line persuaded many nations to increase the size of their own artillery corps.  

@@34	B. Horse Artillery

To keep up with fast moving cavalry, horse artillery batteries put entire gun crews on horseback or the horse-drawn limbers. 

The cannon used by horse artillery lack range and firepower compared to other artillery pieces. This is considered unimportant; speed is all! Horse artillery units can move guns to a firing position, deploy, and then remove themselves with some despatch. They can be where they are needed to support and attack or break an enemy advance. They are a tactical reserve that any general will welcome, or a means to exploit a weakness in the enemy line. 

Historically, Frederick the Great of Prussia observed that even the smallest artillery piece could be enough to break enemy defensive formations, leaving them open to subsequent attacks by infantry. He concluded that speed and mobility, rather than simple weight of shot, was important. This observation lead him to order the development of a galloper gun, and a six-pounder that could be dragged at the gallop. Fredericks contribution to military tactics was acknowledged by Napoleon himself, who considered the king a master tactician. 

@@35	Nelson

Born on 29 September 1758 in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, Horatio Nelson was the sixth of the 11 children of a clergyman. He joined the navy aged 12, on a ship commanded by a maternal uncle. He became a captain at 20, and saw service in the West Indies, Baltic and Canada. He married Frances Nisbet in 1787 in Nevis, and returned to England with his bride to spend the next five years on half-pay, frustrated at the lack of a command.

When Britain entered the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, Nelson was given command of the Agamemnon. He served in the Mediterranean, helped capture Corsica and saw battle at Calvi (where he lost the sight in his right eye). He would later lose his right arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1797.

As a commander he was known for bold action, and the occasional disregard of orders from his seniors. This defiance brought him victories against the Spanish off Cape Vincent in 1797, and at the Battle of Copenhagen four years later, where he ignored orders to cease action by putting his telescope to his blind eye and claiming he couldn't seen the signal to withdraw.

At the Battle of the Nile in 1798, he successfully destroyed Napoleon's fleet and thus his bid for a direct trade route to India. Nelson's next posting took him to Naples, where he fell in love with Emma, Lady Hamilton. Although they remained in their respective marriages, Nelson and Emma Hamilton considered each other soul-mates and had a child together, Horatia, in 1801. Earlier that same year, Nelson was promoted to vice-admiral.

Over the period 1794 to 1805, under Nelson's leadership, the Royal Navy proved its supremacy over the French. His most famous engagement, at Cape Trafalgar, saved Britain from threat of invasion by Napoleon, but it would be his last. Before the battle on 21 October 1805, Nelson sent out the famous signal to his fleet 'England expects that every man will do his duty'. He was killed by a French sniper a few hours later while leading the attack on the combined French and Spanish fleet. His body was preserved in brandy and transported back to England where he was given a state funeral.

@@36	Kutusov

Mikhail Kutuzov, in full Mikhail Illarionovich, Prince Kutuzov, (born September 5 [September 16, New Style], 1745, St. Petersburg, Russiadied April 16 [April 28], 1813, Bunzlau, Silesia), Russian army commander who repelled Napoleons invasion of Russia (1812).

The son of a lieutenant general who had served in Peter the Greats army, Kutuzov attended the military engineering school at age 12 and entered the Russian army as a corporal when he was only 14. He gained combat experience fighting in Poland (176469) and against the Turks (177074), and he learned strategic and tactical techniques from General Aleksandr Suvorov, whom he served for six years in Crimea. He was promoted to colonel in 1777 and by 1784 had become a major general.

Although he had received a severe head wound and lost an eye in 1774, he actively participated in the Russo-Turkish War of 178791, in which he was again severely wounded. After the war he held a variety of high diplomatic and administrative posts, but he fell into disgrace in 1802 and retired to his country estate. When Russia joined the third coalition against Napoleon three years later, however, Emperor Alexander I recalled Kutuzov and gave him command of the joint Russian-Austrian army that opposed the French advance on Vienna. Before Kutuzovs force could link up with the Austrians, however, Napoleon defeated the latter at the Battle of Ulm. Kutuzov skillfully retreated after defeating the French at Drrenstein on November 11, 1805, and preserved his army intact. He proposed to fall back to the Russian frontier and await reinforcements, but Alexander overruled him and engaged the French army in battle at Austerlitz (December 2), suffering a disastrous defeat. Kutuzov was partly blamed for the disaster and was removed from his command. Subsequently Alexander returned Kutuzov to active duty as commander of an army in Moldavia after war had again broken out with Turkey. Kutuzov inflicted several defeats on the Turks and on May 28, 1812, concluded a Russo-Turkish peace settlement favourable to Russia (Treaty of Bucharest).

In June 1812 Napoleons army entered Russia, and the Russians fell back before him. Under pressure of public opinion, Alexander on August 9 appointed Kutuzov commander in chief of all the Russian forces and, on the following day, made him a prince. Napoleon sought a general engagement, but Kutuzovs strategy was to wear down the French by incessant minor engagements while retreating and preserving his army. Under public pressure and against his better judgment, however, he fought a major battle at Borodino on September 7. Although the battle itself was inconclusive, Kutuzov lost almost half his troops and afterward withdrew to the southeast, allowing the French forces to enter Moscow.

Napoleon, having failed to make peace with the Russians and being unwilling to spend the winter in Moscow, left the city in October. He tried to move southwestward, but Kutuzov blocked his attempt to proceed along the fertile, southern route by giving battle at Maloyaroslavets (October 19). By forcing the disintegrating French army to leave Russia by the path it had devastated when it entered the country, Kutuzov destroyed his opponent without fighting another major battle. Kutuzovs troops harried the retreating French, engaging them at Vyazma and Krasnoye, and the remnants of Napoleons army narrowly escaped annihilation at the crossing of the Berezina River in late November. In January 1813 Kutuzov pursued the French into Poland and Prussia, where he died of disease.

Kutuzov was the finest Russian commander of his day next to Suvorov himself. He typically relied on quick maneuvers and sought to avoid unnecessary battles, husbanding his forces to strike at the proper moment.

@@37	Customs Warehouse

A new unit, the Customs Warehouse, has been added to version 1.3 of the scenario (which replaces the Russian Life Guard). 

These units are prepositioned in the French coastal cities of Anvers, Brest, Calais, La Rochelle, Marseille and upon the capture of the Kingdom of Napoli added to the city of the same name.

As long as they exist each warehouse will add 3 francs to the French treasury at the beginning of each month. 

These units are irreplaceable so if lost due to enemy activity you lose them and their revenue generating capacity for the remainder of the game. 

@@38	R. Line Infantry

Line infantry are the mainstay of any army. They form the battle line and are skilled with muskets and bayonets. 

Fusiliers advance upon the enemy, firing volley after volley before they close with fixed bayonets. Although they are foot soldiers, and lack the dash and lan of cavalry, they take a justifiable pride in their worth in battle. They can form square when threatened by cavalry, and give other enemy infantry a bloody time but they are still vulnerable to shelling by artillery and sniping by skirmishers. 

@@39	R. Light Infantry

These light infantry are armed with rifles. As skirmishers, they harass the enemy through accurate sniping. 

Hard-working and hard-drinking, these hard men are hardened to every conceivable hardship; they are tough, and loyal soldiers to their superior officers. The jgers remain in the Russian army until the day they die, almost as military serfs; most of them were serfs anyway. They have a lifetime of experience of living off the land, and a fearsome reputation for being rather barbaric. Despite this, they are not well suited to the discipline of close combat, and are much more use when peppering an enemy with musket balls. 

Strangely, the Tsars troops were assigned regiments depending on their physical size. The tallest always became grenadiers, and the smallest were destined for the jger battalions. But physique is no guarantee of soldierly qualities and in 1811 Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly changed the system so that personal merit and worth determined a mans assignment. Even more strangely, this practice of sizing soldiers went on in the Russian Soviet army as well, but for the practical reason that tall or bulky men simply would not fit into tanks: the design philosophy of Russian tanks was to make them as low as possible, hence the lack of space inside

@@40	R. Cuirassiers

Cuirassiers are intended to charge and break enemy units in vicious melee combat. 

Equipped with heavy, straight swords and wearing armour, cuirassiers are melee cavalry. If the cuirassiers can get in among their foes, then they can do bloody work and have some protection in the fight granted by their cuirasses and heavy helmets. They are rightly feared by enemy infantry, and other cavalry forces are foolish not to treat them with a degree of respect. The price paid for this imposing strength is in speed: cuirassiers are far from swift, dashing cavalrymen. They are heavyweights, and killers. 

In many ways, Cuirassiers hark back to an older style of warfare: cavalrymen had always been armoured, until the widespread use of firearms meant that armour was more trouble than it was worth. The magnificence of their appearance, however, added to their worth on the battlefield. Their Minerva style helmets merely added to the impression that here was a unit of giants. The effect was intended to be quite intimidating, and it worked: cuirassiers were always big men on big horses, heavily armoured and well trained to use shock against any weak enemy. 

@@41	Don Cossack

Cossacks are a free warrior people, fine horsemen and terrible foes. 

Cossacks are cavalrymen without peer, as might be expected of steppe folk. There are few soldiers that can withstand their terrifying charge, making them excellent shock troops. As is often the case, their courage and eagerness to enter battle betrays a certain wildness; their undisciplined nature can find them plunging blindly into trouble, making them particularly vulnerable in melee. 

Historically, Russians and other Eastern Europeans had an ambiguous relationship with the Cossacks. There was admiration for their warrior culture and freewheeling ways, yet a certain wariness of their wild nature. They lacked the discipline of other troops and had a certain fondness for drink, but it was their constant harassment that helped destroy Napoleons Grand Arme. Their reputation inspired fear in their enemies and won many a fight even before the Cossacks voiced their deafening war cries. 

@@42	R. Foot Artillery

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved. Napoleon was an artilleryman, and his use of guns in concentration against small parts of the enemy battle line persuaded many nations to increase the size of their own artillery corps.  

@@43	R. Horse Artillery

To keep up with fast moving cavalry, horse artillery batteries put entire gun crews on horseback or the horse-drawn limbers. 

The cannon used by horse artillery lack range and firepower compared to other artillery pieces. This is considered unimportant; speed is all! Horse artillery units can move guns to a firing position, deploy, and then remove themselves with some despatch. They can be where they are needed to support and attack or break an enemy advance. They are a tactical reserve that any general will welcome, or a means to exploit a weakness in the enemy line. 

Historically, Frederick the Great of Prussia observed that even the smallest artillery piece could be enough to break enemy defensive formations, leaving them open to subsequent attacks by infantry. He concluded that speed and mobility, rather than simple weight of shot, was important. This observation lead him to order the development of a galloper gun, and a six-pounder that could be dragged at the gallop. Fredericks contribution to military tactics was acknowledged by Napoleon himself, who considered the king a master tactician. 

@@44	Mortar Shells

@@45	6 pdr Shells

@@46	8 pdr Shells

@@47	Hussars

Hussars are light cavalry, fast moving and useful for scouting ahead of an army. 

These superb horsemen can be used as a screen for the main army, or for strategic scouting to locate the enemy. Hussar speed makes them ideal for targeting skirmishers and artillery: enemies have little chance to escape if hussars are sent against them. Hussars are armed with curved sabres, and can acquit themselves well in melee or during a charge, although they do not fare well against disciplined infantry or heavy cavalry. 

Historically, hussars of all nations enjoyed the freebooting attitude of the Hungarian originals, and acted independently of the main army as much as they could. This was useful, because they could be sent out to do long patrols or reconnaissance, and possibly a little plundering. Their high-spirited approach to war was matched by their popinjay uniforms, some of the gaudiest ever to have been worn into battle. Hussar arrogance, however, was well deserved: in 1806 some 500 French hussars bluffed a 6,000-strong Prussian garrison at Stettin into surrendering the fortress there. 

@@48	Train Militaire

@@49	Plunder

@@50	S. Line Cavalry

Reliable, sturdy and fast, line cavalry are a good all-round mounted unit. Guerrilla units can be deployed anywhere on the battlefield except inside the enemy deployment zone or within range of the enemy general. 

Armed with a traditional straight sword, as opposed to the ever-popular sabre, these cavalrymen are a multipurpose unit. They are light enough to chase down a routing enemy, but heavy enough to charge effectively into enemy lines. However, their versatility comes at the cost of specialisation: should they be pitted against the likes of horse guards, their lack of specialist training will become apparent. 

Spain and the Peninsular War proved to be a major part in the downfall of Napoleon and this was thanks, in part, to his older brother Joseph. Joseph helped his brother to take control of France during the revolution and was rewarded with the throne of Naples in 1806. His time as king was brief, and he was soon sent elsewhere when Spain fell under Napoleons control. Napoleon needed someone he could trust on the Spanish throne and Joseph was the obvious choice. However, French occupation of Spain was unpopular to say the least and Joseph never really managed to gain a steady grip on the country. French control was eventually broken at the Battle of Vitoria and Joseph abdicated, fleeing back to France. 

@@51	Minor Fort

@@52	Major Fort

@@53	Village

@@54	Charles

Archduke Charles, German Erzherzog Karl, (born Sept. 5, 1771, Florence  died April 30, 1847, Vienna, Austria), Austrian archduke, field marshal, army reformer, and military theoretician who was one of the few Allied commanders capable of defeating the French generals of the Napoleonic period. He modernized the Austrian army during the first decade of the 19th century, making it a formidable fighting force that contributed materially to Napoleons defeat in 181315.

The third son of the future Holy Roman emperor Leopold II, Charles grew up in Italy. Taking part in the war against Revolutionary France beginning in 1792, he was victorious at Aldenhoven and Neerwinden in 1793 and became governor-general of the Austrian Netherlands the same year. He was appointed commander in chief of the Austrian Rhine army in 1796 and was also named field marshal general of the Holy Roman Empire. His campaign of 1796, in which he repeatedly defeated the French commanders Jean-Baptiste Jourdan and Jean-Victor-Marie Moreau and drove them back across the Rhine, distinguished him as one of Europes best commanders.

Again commanding the Rhine front in the War of the Second Coalition against France (17981802), Charles defeated Jourdan and Andr Massna but could not stop Moreaus advance on Vienna after the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden (1800). During the war of 1805 Charles commanded the main Austrian army in Italy and again crushed Massna at Caldiero, but Austrian defeats in Germany decided the struggle in Napoleons favour.

After the Treaty of Lunville (1801), Charles became president of the Austrian Hofkriegsrat (Supreme War Council) and generalissimo with wide powers. The only general who had vanquished the French, he discarded Austrias old military system and initiated a far-reaching program of reforms that included the adoption of the nation-in-arms principle, the utilization of French military organization and tactics, and the founding of military academies. Not yet ready but nevertheless a formidable force, the Austrian army under Charles crushed Napoleon at Aspern-Essling but was again defeated in the desperately fought Battle of Wagram in 1809.

Retiring during that year, Charles took no further part in the Napoleonic struggles. His military writings, especially his Grundstze der Strategie erlutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzuges von 1796 in Deutschland, 3 vol. (1814; Principles of Strategy, Explained Through the Description of the Campaign of 1796 in Germany), exercised considerable influence on his contemporaries. In contrast to his aggressive and daring conduct of actual operations, Charless writings emphasized caution and the importance of strategic points and were somewhat antiquated even in his own time.

@@55	Schwarzenberg

Karl Philipp, prince zu Schwarzenberg, (born April 15, 1771, Vienna, Austriadied Oct. 15, 1820, Leipzig), Austrian field marshal and diplomat who was one of the most successful Allied commanders in the Napoleonic Wars and who contributed significantly to the French emperors defeat in 181314.

Scion of one of the oldest aristocratic houses of the Habsburg empire, Schwarzenberg joined the Austrian army in 1787 and served against the Turks in 178889. He was a cavalry officer during the War of the First Coalition against Revolutionary France (179297), and he distinguished himself during the War of the Second Coalition (17981802), covering the Austrian withdrawal after the defeat at Hohenlinden (1800). Saving his troops after the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Ulm (1805), Schwarzenberg became vice president of the Hofkriegsrat (Supreme Imperial War Council) and planned the creation of a popular militia to defend the Austrian domains. He partly initiated the army reforms that made possible Austrias early successes in the next war against Napoleon (1809), in which he also distinguished himself as a field commander in the Battle of Wagram. Schwarzenbergs most noteworthy diplomatic efforts were persuading the emperor Alexander I to delay Russian support of France in 1809 and, as ambassador to France, negotiating, one year later, the marriage between Napoleon and the Austrian emperor Francis Is daughter Marie-Louise. He also negotiated Austrias agreement to participate with France in the war of 1812 against Russia.

In command of the Austrian contingent of Napoleons army invading Russia, Schwarzenberg, in accordance with Austrian policy, held his forces back and during the winter of 181213 retreated into Austrian territory, thus facilitating the junction between Russian and Prussian forces. Henceforward he headed the party at the Austrian court that urged war against Napoleon, and in August 1813, when this policy prevailed, he was promoted to field marshal and appointed commander in chief of the Allied forces. On the advice of Field Marshal Joseph, Count Radetzky, Schwarzenberg united the Allied armies near Leipzig and dealt Napoleon the decisive defeat (at the Battle of Leipzig) that liberated Germany. Following that success he pushed the French westward across the Rhine River and directed the Allies operations in France that led to the final collapse of Napoleons forces in 1814.

As head of the Hofkriegsrat from 1814, Schwarzenberg argued for more easily defensible frontiers for the Habsburg empire. At the Congress of Vienna (1815) he opposed Prussias demand for all of Saxony, which would have meant the Prussian encirclement of Austrian-held Bohemia. He suffered a stroke in 1817 and died three years later.

@@56	A. Line Infantry

These musket-armed troops use volleys to break an enemy line, and rely on their discipline to survive any return fire. 

German Fusiliers are line infantry who take their title from the fusils, light flintlock muskets, that they carry. Forming the line of battle, they must be able to calmly take aim at their targets as shells explode around them, skirmishers shots smack home, and enemy cavalry bear down upon them. Fusiliers are effective against cavalry when in square, and excel in close combat, but care needs to be taken against skirmishers at extreme range. 

Historically, the Austrian armys infantry was divided into German and Hungarian regiments. The Hungarians were renowned for their ferocity, and the Germans for rigid discipline. This was particularly true of the fusiliers who fought in the rigid formations that made up the bulk of the army. During the Napoleonic Wars, units such as skirmishers, grenadiers and artillery took on more of the fighting as tactics evolved, but the line regiments remained almost unchanged as organisations. Their company and battalion structure still forms the basis of modern armies.

@@57	A. Light Infantry

These skirmishers are excellent shots, perfect for harassing an enemy from a distance. 

Nothing causes fear in men during battle like seeing your comrades slaughtered by a seemingly invisible enemy. Jgers are adept at hiding in cover as the foe approaches and they then use their superior marksmanship to bring down their targets. Using loose skirmishing formations, jgers are good at ambushes, but are at a disadvantage if they are forced into close combat, or ridden down by cavalry. 

The Austrian Jgers, or hunters were extremely well trained and particularly adept at using cover and fieldcraft to gain the upper hand in a fight. They could stalk their targets, just as hunters stalk deer, using every bit of cover to hide their approach to a firing position. At the Battle of Wagram in 1809 jgers hid in a drainage ditch and lay in wait for the French, hitting them with a barrage of well-aimed shots. 

@@58	A. Krassier

Cuirassiers are intended to charge and break enemy units in vicious melee combat. 

Equipped with heavy, straight swords and wearing armour, cuirassiers are melee cavalry. If the cuirassiers can get in among their foes, then they can do bloody work and have some protection in the fight granted by their cuirasses and heavy helmets. They are rightly feared by enemy infantry, and other cavalry forces are foolish not to treat them with a degree of respect. The price paid for this imposing strength is in speed: cuirassiers are far from swift, dashing cavalrymen. They are heavyweights, and killers. 

In many ways, Cuirassiers hark back to an older style of warfare: cavalrymen had always been armoured, until the widespread use of firearms meant that armour was more trouble than it was worth. The magnificence of their appearance, however, added to their worth on the battlefield. Their Minerva style helmets merely added to the impression that here was a unit of giants. The effect was intended to be quite intimidating, and it worked: cuirassiers were always big men on big horses, heavily armoured and well trained to use shock against any weak enemy.

@@59	A. Uhlans

Ulans are fast-moving lancers, and terrific shock cavalry who can batter an enemy into flight. 

Like all lancers, it is their weapons that give them a distinct advantage in the first seconds of contact. A unit of lancers, charging into the attack, is frightening indeed to the targets of their ire. However, a lance is not the handiest of weapons in a melee, so the ulans should break off, reform and charge anew rather than stay in hand-to-hand combat. Like all shock cavalry, they should not be thrown into ill-considered attacks against prepared or elite infantry in square formations. 

The Austrian decision to raise lancer regiments was a consequence of conquering former Polish provinces: Polish manpower was there to be exploited, and Poles were regarded as expert lancers. The first units were raised by the order of Emperor Joseph II (1741-90), but it was under his successor, Leopold, that the first proper regiments were created. The Poles had a long tradition of fielding lancer regiments, and the Austrians made full use of this experience. Ulans were armed, dressed, and trained in a distinctly Polish style: the rank and file were also mostly Polish speakers.

@@60	A. Foot Artillery

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved. Napoleon was an artilleryman, and his use of guns in concentration against small parts of the enemy battle line persuaded many nations to increase the size of their own artillery corps.  

@@61	A. Horse Artillery

To keep up with fast moving cavalry, horse artillery batteries put entire gun crews on horseback or the horse-drawn limbers. 

The cannon used by horse artillery lack range and firepower compared to other artillery pieces. This is considered unimportant; speed is all! Horse artillery units can move guns to a firing position, deploy, and then remove themselves with some despatch. They can be where they are needed to support and attack or break an enemy advance. They are a tactical reserve that any general will welcome, or a means to exploit a weakness in the enemy line. 

Historically, Frederick the Great of Prussia observed that even the smallest artillery piece could be enough to break enemy defensive formations, leaving them open to subsequent attacks by infantry. He concluded that speed and mobility, rather than simple weight of shot, was important. This observation lead him to order the development of a galloper gun, and a six-pounder that could be dragged at the gallop. Fredericks contribution to military tactics was acknowledged by Napoleon himself, who considered the king a master tactician. 

@@62	S. Foot Artillery

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved. Napoleon was an artilleryman, and his use of guns in concentration against small parts of the enemy battle line persuaded many nations to increase the size of their own artillery corps. 

@@63	Blcher

Gebhard Leberecht von Blcher, Frst (prince) von Wahlstatt, byname Marschall Vorwrts (Marshal Forward), (born December 16, 1742, Rostock, Mecklenburg  died September 12, 1819, Krieblowitz, near Kanth, Silesia, Prussia), Prussian field marshal, a commander during the Napoleonic Wars, who was important in the Allied victory at Waterloo.

Blcher enlisted in the Swedish cavalry in 1756 and served until he was captured in 1760 by the Prussians, for whom he thereafter fought. He distinguished himself against the French in 179394 and commanded the Prussian rear guard at the Battle of Jena (1806). Around this time he met Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst, who served as one of his principal staff officers until Scharnhorsts death in June 1813. After the Peace of Tilsit (1807) Blcher was employed for a time in the War Department and then went into retirement.

In 1813, when war between France and Prussia broke out again, Blcher, then 71 years old, returned to active service. He took part in the battles of Ltzen and Bautzen in May 1813, and three months later at Wahlstatt (Legnickie Pole), on the Katzbach (Kaczawa) River, he decisively defeated the French under Marshal Jacques-Alexandre Macdonald, capturing 18,000 prisoners and more than 100 guns. For his part in the Battle of Leipzig (October 1813) he was made a field marshal. After hard fighting he entered Paris with other victorious Allied commanders in May 1814. He then received his title of Prince of Wahlstatt and retired to his estates.

After Napoleons return in 1815, Blcher again assumed command of the Prussian troops in Belgium, with August von Gneisenau as his invaluable chief of staff. Blcher immediately set about coordinating his force with that of the British and Allied forces under the Duke of Wellington. At Ligny (June 16, 1815) he was defeated by Napoleon; but, in order to ensure cooperation with Wellington later, he withdrew his army toward Wavre, although by so doing he endangered his own communications. His troops took no part in the early stages of the Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815); but, urged on by Gneisenau, they made an exhausting countermarch and appeared on the French right flank at a critical stage of the battle. This action, together with a general advance by the British, completed Napoleons defeat. Blchers cavalry continued the pursuit of the French toward Paris throughout the night.

Blcher was described by a contemporary as a rough, ill-educated man, but he was endowed with common sense and fiery energy. He knew little of the higher art and science of war, and he required a good chief of staff to guide him. On the battlefield, however, his determination and personal courage and example proved invaluable.

@@64	Yorck

Johann Yorck, count von Wartenburg, Yorck also spelled York, Johann also rendered Hans, (born Sept. 26, 1759, Potsdam, Prussia  died Oct. 4, 1830, Klein-ls, Silesia), Prussian field marshal, reformer, and successful commander during the Wars of Liberation (181315) against France. His initiative in signing a separate neutrality agreement with Russia during the Napoleonic invasion of that country (Convention of Tauroggen, 1812) opened the way for Prussia to join the Allied powers against Napoleon.

Yorck entered the Prussian army in 1772 but was cashiered for disobedience in 1779. Joining the Dutch army, he served mainly in the Dutch East Indies, where he became familiar with skirmish warfare and open battle formations. After reinstatement in the Prussian army (1787), he fought in Poland (1794) and successfully commanded the rear guard after Napoleons rout of the Prussian army at Jena (October 1806). Promoted to major general in 1807, Yorck, as inspector of light infantry, played a leading role in the reorganization of the Prussian army. An excellent tactician, he became the tactical teacher of the army, developing the infantry scout and the line of skirmishes. His conservatism, however, led him to oppose the liberal army reforms proposed by General August Neidhardt von Gneisenau.

In 1812 Yorck led the Prussian contingent of Napoleons invading army in Russia. During Napoleons disastrous retreat, he concluded the Tauroggen Convention with the Russians, neutralizing his force. The Prussian king Frederick William III signed the Treaty of Kalisch (Feb. 28, 1813), which justified Yorcks action and brought Prussia into the Allied camp. In the subsequent campaigns, Yorck distinguished himself again and was created Graf von Wartenburg in 1814. He remained in the army after the conclusion of peace.

@@65	P. Line Infantry

Line infantry are the mainstay of any army. They form the battle line and are skilled with muskets and bayonets. 

Fusiliers advance upon the enemy, firing volley after volley before they close with fixed bayonets. Although they are foot soldiers, and lack the dash and lan of cavalry, they take a justifiable pride in their worth in battle. They can form square when threatened by cavalry, and give other enemy infantry a bloody time but they are still vulnerable to shelling by artillery and sniping by skirmishers. 

@@66	P. Light Infantry

Fusiliers are an elite light infantry unit, able to form a firing line or skirmish as required. 

Rigorous training and careful selection of troops have made the fusiliers some of the best soldiers in the Prussian army. The men are armed with smoothbore muskets and bayonets, and drilled to use the most of the tactics of light and line infantry. Their only real weakness is that, when under threat from cavalry, they cannot form square. 

The first battalion of fusiliers for the Prussian army was formally created in 1787. Its origins, however, went back to the Free Regiments of the Seven Years War; those units had a reputation for ill-discipline, roguish behaviour and desertion, even at a time when desertion was a common problem. Indeed, desertion remained a problem for many armies, especially among the men conscripted into light skirmishing units. Skirmishers often operate away from direct control by sergeants and officers, and can slip away in the heat of battle, if they really want to desert. 

@@67	P. Krassier

Cuirassiers are intended to charge and break enemy units in vicious melee combat. 

Equipped with heavy, straight swords and wearing armour, cuirassiers are melee cavalry. If the cuirassiers can get in among their foes, then they can do bloody work and have some protection in the fight granted by their cuirasses and heavy helmets. They are rightly feared by enemy infantry, and other cavalry forces are foolish not to treat them with a degree of respect. The price paid for this imposing strength is in speed: cuirassiers are far from swift, dashing cavalrymen. They are heavyweights, and killers. 

In many ways, Cuirassiers hark back to an older style of warfare: cavalrymen had always been armoured, until the widespread use of firearms meant that armour was more trouble than it was worth. The magnificence of their appearance, however, added to their worth on the battlefield. Their Minerva style helmets merely added to the impression that here was a unit of giants. The effect was intended to be quite intimidating, and it worked: cuirassiers were always big men on big horses, heavily armoured and well trained to use shock against any weak enemy. 

@@68	P. Uhlans

These cavalrymen are each armed with a lance, which make them particularly deadly when charging. 

The lance is probably among the oldest of cavalry weapons. It gives the user a chance to put all his weight and that of his charging horse into one very sharp point. A lance that can, in skilled hands, be driven right through any enemy. When coupled with the fast pace of their horses, a lancers charge is very intimidating. However, if the lancer does not kill his target, he leaves himself vulnerable. A long lance is less use in a melee than a sword, and a lancer is at a disadvantage once the close fighting starts, especially against well-trained infantry capable of forming square. 

@@69	P. Foot Artillery

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved. Napoleon was an artilleryman, and his use of guns in concentration against small parts of the enemy battle line persuaded many nations to increase the size of their own artillery corps. 

@@70	P. Horse Artillery

To keep up with fast moving cavalry, horse artillery batteries put entire gun crews on horseback or the horse-drawn limbers. 

The cannon used by horse artillery lack range and firepower compared to other artillery pieces. This is considered unimportant; speed is all! Horse artillery units can move guns to a firing position, deploy, and then remove themselves with some despatch. They can be where they are needed to support and attack or break an enemy advance. They are a tactical reserve that any general will welcome, or a means to exploit a weakness in the enemy line. 

Historically, Frederick the Great of Prussia observed that even the smallest artillery piece could be enough to break enemy defensive formations, leaving them open to subsequent attacks by infantry. He concluded that speed and mobility, rather than simple weight of shot, was important. This observation lead him to order the development of a galloper gun, and a six-pounder that could be dragged at the gallop. Fredericks contribution to military tactics was acknowledged by Napoleon himself, who considered the king a master tactician.

@@71	Cuesta

Gregorio Garca de la Cuesta y Fernndez de Celis (9 May 1741  1811) was a prominent Spanish general of the Peninsular War. 

Born in La Lastra, Cantabria, to a family of petty nobles, Cuesta entered military service in 1758 as a member of the Spanish Royal Guards Regiment. He saw several successes as a Lieutenant General during the War of the Pyrenees in the years 1793 to 1795. On 20 December 1795, he led 8,000 Spanish and Portuguese in a successful attack in the Battle of Collioure, capturing Collioure, Fort Saint-Elme and Port-Vendres. Cuesta's force killed or captured 4,000 of the 5,000 defenders.

When war with France broke out in 1808, Cuesta was already 67 years old. He was at first reluctant to lead the insurgents who rose up in Valladolid but agreed after a gallows was erected outside his house and the indignant populace threatened to hang him. His army was ramshackle, ill-trained and underequipped and his hastily recruited force of 5,000 militia stood little chance against the Grande Arme of Napoleon. It was heavily defeated at Cabezn, forcing Cuesta's withdrawal from his seat of command at Valladolid.

Following the loss of Madrid to Napoleon at the Battle of Somosierra the situation in Spain became more desperate and Cuesta was allowed to reconstitute the Army of Extremadura in order to defend the southern frontier. In defiance of the military wisdom of the time Cuesta pursued an offensive as soon as he had constructed a fighting force. This met with success. In January and February 1809, all of Badajoz was reclaimed from the French. 

Cuesta joined forces with the British army under Wellington. Relations with his British allies were difficult, Cuesta promising and then failing to supply the British troops more than once, much to Wellesley's irritation. Further difficulties arose in the aftermath of the Battle of Talavera. Though the Anglo-Spanish army won the costly battle, Wellington planned for a withdrawal to stop French General Nicolas Soult and 30,000 troops cutting him off from Portugal. Cuesta refused to co-operate. Later, Wellington was furious when he heard that Cuesta abandoned the injured British soldiers Wellesley left in his care to the French as prisoners. More Spanish defeats followed as Cuesta attempted to fight the French without co-ordinating with his allies or attempting to gain prior advantage. 

In 1810, Cuesta suffered a serious stroke from which he died in retirement a year later. Cuesta's reputation was that of a hopelessly proud, arrogant, xenophobic, and reactionary officer. While his personal bravery was never in question, Cuesta's reputation suffered during and after the war, due mainly to his lack of understanding the deficiencies of the Spanish army but also his behaviour to fellow officers and allies. His arrogance led him to attempt to fight the veteran French army head on with several disastrous results. 

@@72	Soult

Nicolas-Jean de Dieu Soult, duke de Dalmatie, (born March 29, 1769, Saint-Amans-la-Bastide, later Saint-Amans-Soult, Fr.died Nov. 26, 1851, Saint-Amans-Soult), French military leader and political figure who was noted for his courage in battle and his opportunism in politics.

Upon the death of his father in 1785, Soult enlisted in the infantry. At the outbreak of the French Revolution (178992), he was a sergeant at Strasbourg. He served under several commanders and was made a general by Franois-Joseph Lefebvre for his conduct in the Battle of Fleurus (June 1794). In March 1799 he replaced the wounded Lefebvre at the Battle of Stokach.

Soult built a reputation for vigour, boldness, and method. Under Napoleon he was put in charge of the southern part of the Kingdom of Naples (180002) and in 1804 was made a marshal of France. His reputation was further enhanced by his significant role in French victories at Ulm, Austerlitz, and Jena in 180506, though he was less successful in Poland at Eylau and Heilsberg (1807). Created duc de Dalmatie and sent to Spain late in 1808, he was soon put in charge of all French armies involved in the Peninsular War, where he was opposed by the English under Arthur Wellesley (later duke of Wellington). Soult remained in Spain for most of the next five years, but eventually Wellesley forced his outnumbered troops to retreat and defeated him at Toulouse (April 1814), four days after Napoleon had abdicated.

During the First Restoration (1814) Soult declared himself a royalist, but during Napoleons Hundred Days (1815) he again supported Bonaparte, acting as his chief of staff at Waterloo. Soult was exiled at the start of the Second Restoration (181530) but was recalled in 1819. Under King Louis-Philippe he presided over three ministries (October 1832July 1834, May 1839March 1840, and October 1840September 1847) and was usually minister of war as well as president of the council; he was responsible for the French conquest of Algeria during the 1840s. In 1848, when Louis-Philippe was overthrown, Soult declared himself a republican. His Mmoires appeared in three volumes in 1854.

@@73	Davout

Louis-Nicolas Davout, duke of Auerstedt, French in full Louis-Nicolas Davout, duc dAuerstedt, prince dEckmhl, original name Louis-Nicolas dAvout, (born May 10, 1770, Annoux, Francedied June 1, 1823, Paris), French marshal who was one of the most distinguished of Napoleons field commanders.

Born into the noble family of dAvout, he was educated at the cole Royale Militaire in Paris and entered Louis XVIs service as a second lieutenant in 1788. Amid the divisions caused by the French Revolution in the army, dAvout sided with the pro-revolutionaries in 1790 and was forced out, but he was reinstated after the establishment of the First Republic two years later. At that time he changed the spelling of his name to Davout so as not to indicate his noble birth.

He served with distinction in the armies in northern France and Belgium and rose rapidly to the rank of general of brigade (1793). But the antiaristocratic Jacobins soon purged him from his position; after their fall from power in 1794, he was reinstated yet again. In 1798 he served under Napoleon in Egypt. Returning to France in 1800, Davout later married Louise-Aime Leclerc, sister-in-law to Napoleons sister Pauline Bonaparte.

Given command of the troops at Bruges that became the Third Corps of Napoleons army and named marshal of the empire, Davout played a major role in the Battle of Austerlitz (1805). The following year, at Auerstdt, with 26,000 men of the Third Corps, he destroyed a Prussian army of nearly 60,000 troops; that success would earn him the title duke of Auerstdt. He also played a significant role in the Battles of Eylau (1807), Eckmhl (1809), and Wagram (1809).

Davout commanded the First Corps during Napoleons Russian campaign (1812) and was wounded at the Battle of Borodino. In 1813 Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig, and his army retreated west of the Rhine. Davout was left in command of the besieged city of Hamburg, and from October 1813 to May 1814 he held the city, surrendering it only when the new Bourbon government of France confirmed that Napoleon had abdicated.

Upon Davouts return to France, Louis XVIII refused to receive him. When Napoleon returned to power in 1815, Davout was named minister of war. Several months later, after Napoleons defeat at Waterloo, Davout took the remains of the army south of the Loire River. He was forced out of the army and exiled to central France. In 1819 Davout was restored to his honours and title and named a peer of France.

@@74	Lannes

Jean Lannes, duc de Montebello, (born April 10/11, 1769, Lectoure, Francedied May 31, 1809, Vienna, Austrian Empire), French general who, despite his humble origins, rose to the rank of marshal of the First Empire. Napoleon said of him, I found him a pygmy and left him a giant.

Lannes, the son of a stable boy, learned to read and write from a village priest and was apprenticed to a dyer. In 1792 he joined the national volunteers of Gers and, as a sergeant major, served in the Army of the Pyrnes-Orientales against the Spanish. His great courage in the Battle of Dego (1796), in the Italian campaign, brought him to the attention of Napoleon, who made him a general in 1796. In 179899 he took part in the capture of Cairo and went on the Syrian campaign as commander of an army division, playing a leading role in the siege of Gaza and Saint-Jean dAcre, though he was seriously wounded at the Battle of Aboukir. Returning to France, he took command of the 9th and 10th Divisions. He took part in the coup dtat of 18 Brumaire, year VIII (November 9, 1799), which brought Napoleon to power. Entrusted with the vanguard that crossed the Alps into Italy in May 1800, he defeated the Austrians at Montebello on June 9, thus contributing greatly to Napoleons victory at Marengo five days later.

In May 1804 Lannes was made one of the 18 marshals of the empire and fought in the Battles of Ulm (October 1805), Austerlitz (December 1805), and Jena (October 1806). At the Battle of Pultusk in Poland on December 26, 1806, he defeated a much larger Russian force, and he contributed to a second victory over the Russians at Friedland in June 1807.

In 1808 Lannes was created duc de Montebello in honour of his greatest victory. Sent to Spain, he directed the bloody siege of Saragossa, which was captured on February 20, 1809. At the Battle of Aspern-Esseling he was struck in the legs by a cannonball, and nine days later, after having undergone a double amputation, he died. A tough, impetuous fighter, he was one of Napoleons ablest generals.

@@75	Murat

Joachim Murat, Italian Gioacchino Murat, (born March 25, 1767, La Bastide-Fortunire, Francedied October 13, 1815, Pizzo, Calabria), French cavalry leader who was one of Napoleons most celebrated marshals and who, as king of Naples (180815), lent stimulus to Italian nationalism.

The son of an innkeeper, he studied briefly for a career in the church but enlisted in a cavalry regiment in 1787 and, when war broke out in 1792, won rapid promotion. In October 1795 he was on hand in Paris at the moment that Napoleon Bonaparte was entrusted with the mission of suppressing a royalist insurrection; Murats contribution in bringing up cannon won him a place as aide-de-camp to Bonaparte for the Italian campaign of 179697. In Italy and later in Egypt (179899) he established his reputation as a gifted and daring leader of cavalry, and he again served his chief well in the coup dtat of 18 Brumaire, year VIII (November 9, 1799), by which Bonaparte seized power as first consul. Murats reward was the hand of Napoleons youngest sister, Caroline.

In the Italian campaign of 1800 Murat helped win the decisive Battle of Marengo, and in 1801 he rapidly concluded the campaign against Bourbon-ruled Naples by imposing the Armistice of Foligno. As governor of Paris in 1804, he was included among the first generals promoted to the rank of marshal after Napoleons coronation as emperor on December 2. In 1805 he played a conspicuous role in the Austerlitz campaign, helping to pin the Austrian Army in Ulm, where it was forced to surrender, and defeating Austrian and Russian cavalry on the field of Austerlitz. At Jena in 1806 his energetic pursuit completed destruction of the Prussian Army, and at Eylau in 1807 his headlong charge saved a desperate tactical situation.

Rewarded with the title of grand duke of Berg and Clves, Murat began to have dreams of sovereignty, and when he was sent to act as Napoleons lieutenant in Spain he tried to gain possession of the unoccupied Spanish throne. His intrigues led instead to Spanish opposition and a rising in Madrid that, though quelled (May 2, 1808), ended his hopes. Though Napoleon gave the Spanish throne to his brother Joseph, he rewarded Murat with Josephs former place as king of Naples, under the name Joachim-Napolon (or Gioacchino-Napoleone, in Italian).

In Naples Murat not only satisfied his own vanity by a lavish court display but also carried out important reforms, breaking up the vast landed estates and introducing the Napoleonic Code. The administration was opened to advancement by merit, cotton growing was encouraged, and effective measures were taken against the chronic Neapolitan brigandage. Murat even foresaw the unification of Italy, a development at whose head he sought to place himself through the encouragement of secret societies that eventually played a major role in the Risorgimento.

In 1812 Murat took part in Napoleons Russian campaign and once more distinguished himself at Borodino; but, left in charge of the shattered Grand Army during the retreat from Moscow, he abandoned it to try to save his kingdom of Naples. In 1813 he wavered between loyalty to Napoleon and negotiation with the allies. The Austrians signed a treaty with him, but the former Bourbon rulers of Naples raised objections, and his situation was in doubt when Napoleon returned to France in 1815. He then staked his hopes on an appeal to Italian nationalism, but his Neapolitans were defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino, and he was forced to flee to Corsica. In October he made a last, hopeless attempt to recover Naples virtually unaided and was taken prisoner and shot.

@@76	Moore

Sir John Moore, (born Nov. 13, 1761, Glasgow, Lanarkshire, Scot.died Jan. 16, 1809, La Corua, Spain), British lieutenant general who led a famous retreat to La Corua (December 1808January 1809) during the Napoleonic Peninsular War. His actions became celebrated, criticized by some and praised by others (including the Duke of Wellington).

The son of a physician and the stepson of the Duke of Argyll, Moore obtained a seat in Parliament (178490) and a command in the British army upon the outbreak of war with France (1793). He served in Corsica, the West Indies, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Egypt. He was knighted in 1804. While commanding a corps at Shorncliffe Camp, Kent (180306), Moore earned a reputation as one of the greatest trainers of infantrymen in military history. He then served in the Mediterranean command and in Sweden.

Sent to Portugal in 1808, he succeeded to the command of the British army in September with instructions to assist in the expulsion of the French from Spain. He soon determined that the Spanish forces were beaten and that a retreat to Portugal was prudent. Nevertheless, urged on, he moved north from Salamanca to attack Marshal Nicolas Soults French corps on the Carrin River, west of Burgos. 

Learning that Napoleon had cut off his route of withdrawal into Portugal, he led his forces over 250 miles (400 km) of snowclad country to his shipping at La Corua. In the Battle of La Corua (Jan. 16, 1809), Moore died of his wounds after the French had been repulsed. I hope my country will do me justice, he said. These hopes were not fulfilled; he was widely excoriated for retreating. But, in fact, he had secured a strategic victory; the French conquest of Spain was delayed for a year, and Napoleon never again personally intervened in the Spanish theatre.

@@77	Uxbridge

After an impressive military career Henry William Paget, as Lord Uxbridge, was Britain's second-in-command at Waterloo. An exceptional cavalry leader, it was his unleashing of the British heavy cavalry that smashed Napoleon Bonaparte's first major attack of the battle.

Originally an infantry colonel with the 80th Foot, Paget saw action in the Netherlands in 1794 before switching to the cavalry. Under his direction, the 7th Light Dragoons became a highly respected unit and, in 1808, the now Lieutenant-General Paget led the British cavalry in the Peninsular War at Sahagun, Benavente and Corunna. 

His career with Wellington came to an abrupt end when he eloped with the sister-in-law of his commander, but he took part in the Walcheren expedition. 

Paget was a Member of Parliament between 1796 and 1810 and, on his father's death, joined the House of Lords. In 1815, Wellington requested his presence during the 100 Days' Campaign and at Waterloo, where Uxbridge lost his leg.

Other offices held by the Lord Uxbridge included Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland and Master-General of the Ordnance. In 1846 he was made a Field Marshal.

@@78	Bagration

Pyotr Ivanovich, Prince Bagration, (born 1765, Kizlyar, Russiadied September 24 [September 12, Old Style], 1812, Sima), Russian general who distinguished himself during the Napoleonic Wars.

Bagration was descended from the Georgian branch of the Bagratid dynasty. He entered the Russian army in 1782 and served several years in the Caucasus. During the Russo-Turkish War of 178792, he participated in the siege of Ochakov, a fortress near the mouth of the Knepr River, and he helped suppress the Polish uprising (1794) after the second partition of Poland (1793).

He achieved prominence, however, by capturing Brescia during General Aleksandr Suvorovs victorious campaign against Napoleon in Italy and Switzerland (1799). He further enhanced his reputation in 1805, when he assured the safe retreat of the main Russian army into Moravia by holding back a French force of 30,000 men with his 6,000 troops at Hollabrunn. 

He subsequently participated in a series of unsuccessful battles: Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805), Eylau (Feb. 78, 1807), Heilsburg (June 10, 1807), and Friedland (June 14, 1807); but, after Russia formed an alliance with France (Treaty of Tilsit; July 7, 1807) and engaged in a war against Sweden, Bagration marched across the frozen Gulf of Finland and captured the strategic land Islands (1808). He was then transferred to the south (1809) and placed in command of a force fighting the Turks in Bulgaria (Russo-Turkish War of 180612). 

When Russia and France renewed their hostilities (1812), he was given command of the 2nd Russian Army in the West. Although his troops were defeated by the French at Mogilyov and separated from the main Russian army in July, he saved them from destruction and rejoined the main force in August. On Sept. 7, 1812, at the Battle of Borodino, near Moscow, Bagration commanded the left wing of the Russian forces and was fatally wounded. A monument was erected in his honour by Emperor Nicholas I on the battlefield of Borodino.

@@79	Barclay de Tolly

Mikhail Bogdanovich, Prince Barclay de Tolly, (born December 13 [December 24, New Style], 1761, Pamuskis, Poland-Lithuania [now Zeimys, Lithuania]died May 14 [May 26], 1818, Insterburg, East Prussia [now Chernyakhovsk, Russia]), Russian field marshal who was prominent in the Napoleonic Wars.

Barclay was a member of a Scottish family that had settled in Livonia in the 17th century. Enlisting in the ranks of the Russian army in 1776, he served against Turkey (178889) as a noncommissioned officer before his superiors recognized his merit. He then fought as an officer against Sweden (1790) and Poland (179294). In the campaign of 180607 against Napoleon, Barclay distinguished himself in the Battle of Pultusk and was wounded in the Battle of Eylau, after which he was made lieutenant general. In 180809 he commanded Russian forces against the Swedes in Finland. From 1810 to 1812 he was Russian minister of war.

In 1812 Barclay also took command of one of two Russian armies operating against Napoleon. His strategy of avoiding decisive action and retreating into Russia proved unpopular, and he was forced to resign his command in favour of General M.I. Kutuzov, who followed the same strategy.

Barclay was present at the Battle of Borodino, left the army soon afterward, and was recalled in 1813 for service in Germany. After the Battle of Bautzen he was made commander in chief of the Russian forces, and after the Battle of Leipzig he received the title of count from the emperor Alexander I. Barclay took part in the invasion of France in 1814 and while in Paris was promoted to field marshal. In 1815 he was commander in chief of the Russian army that invaded France after Napoleons return from Elba. He was made a prince at the end of that campaign.

@@80	Blake

Joaqun Blake y Joyes (Vlez-Mlaga, 19 August 1759  27 April 1827, Valladolid) was a Spanish military officer who served with distinction in the French Revolutionary and Peninsular wars.

Partially of Irish descent his mother was from Galicia and his father an Irishman, Blake was born at Vlez-Mlaga to an aristocratic family. In his youth, he saw action as a lieutenant of the grenadiers in the American Revolutionary War, taking part in the abortive siege of Gibraltar and the 1783 reconquest of Minorca from the British. 

Exploits in the field led to further promotions, and by the start of the Peninsular War in 1808, Blake held the rank of Lieutenant General. He was appointed head of the Supreme Junta's Army of Galicia (a paper force of 43,001 holding the Spanish left wing along the Cantabrian mountains) during the French invasions and fought well against Napoleon's Grande Arme despite the heavy odds against him. 

Blake and Cuesta were defeated on 14 July at Medina del Rio Seco. Following the general French retreat prompted by the disaster at Bailn, Blake took up positions opposite the enemy on the banks of the Ebro. On 31 October Marshal Lefebvre's IV Corps fell upon Blake's 19,000 men at Pancorbo, turning back the hesitant Spanish advance. To his credit, Blake retreated swiftly and in good order, preventing Napoleon's planned envelopment and annihilation of the Spanish flank. 

In 1810, Blake participated in the creation of a Spanish General Staff, which in the final years of the war began to restore coherence to the country's military enterprises. Poor battlefield performance had in large part been caused by the lethargy, mismanagement, and miscoordination of Spain's fragmented military administration. 

On 16 May 1811 Blake fought the French at the Battle of Albuera alongside William Beresford's AngloPortuguese army. The Spaniards under Blake's command successfully held the allied flank against a strong French infantry, earning him a promotion to Captain General. 

Blake was then transferred to eastern Spain to combat Marshal Suchet's advance on Valencia. Blake, after several defeats, ended up trapped in the city with his army, eventually surrendering on 8 January 1812 with his 16,000 troops, which marked the high point of French successes in eastern Spain. 

In 1815 Blake was made Chief Engineer of the Spanish Royal Army. He died in 1827 in Valladolid, North Western Spain. 

@@81	18 pdr Shells

@@82	Bombard Shells

@@83	Bombarde

This is a small, two-masted ketch-rigged vessel, adapted to carry a single large mortar upon its forward deck. 

All sailing ships rely on having their masts and sails in positions that give them a balanced and evenly weighted push from the wind. Bomb ketches are not handy sailing vessels, thanks to their compromised rigging and the weight of the mortar and its mounting. The design needs to keep the forward portion of the ship clear for firing the mortar. 

The strength of a bomb is in its mortar. This can throw an explosive shell high into the air to plunge down on enemies. The fact that the shell is explosive rather than solid adds to its deadly qualities: men and structures are equally shredded by the arrival of a shell. 

Duty aboard a bomb was not an enviable posting, and there was a good reason why bomb ketches were named after volcanoes, fire-gods or fearsome ideas. They had a nasty tendency to explode, thanks to the shells that they carried; fire aboard a mortar was far more dangerous than aboard any other type of sailing ship, as the ammunition as well as the propellant powder could go up! Despite this, all navies found them a useful ship to have, and the original French design was soon copied by all the sea-going European powers

@@84	Frigate

This is the smallest vessel styled a ship-of-the-line of battle, carrying some 50 long guns. 

Ships-of-the-line are the mainstay of fighting fleets; they are strong and stable gun platforms for battering enemy fleets to pieces. A 50-gun ship-of-the-line is a square-rigged, two-deck vessel, carrying two calibres of cannon: 24- and 18-pounders, with the heavier guns mounted on the lower deck. Though cheap compared to other two-deck warships, their broadside is still effective at close range, and best employed against frigates and smaller craft. A 50-gun ship should not be expected to last long in combat against larger battleships. 

By the 1750s it was obvious that 50-gun ships lacked the hull strength and firepower to stand in the line of battle against larger vessels. Because of their size, there was a new production of British 50-gun ships to serve in shallow coastal waters during the American Revolution but, apart from this, their usefulness in battle was largely over. Various national admiralties removed these small battle ships from active service, or sent them to minor overseas stations where they were unlikely to encounter powerful enemies. Some survived as converted troop transports.

@@85	Two Decker

This is a heavily-armed vessel, with a destructive close range broadside and a very strong hull to withstand return fire. 

These large two-decker ships-of-the-line can hold more and heavier guns than most two-deck vessels. They carry 32- and 24-pounders. These powerful cannon do not have the fast reloading times of lighter pieces, but make up for that with weight of shot. It is most advantageous for a captain to hold his fire until close to the enemy, in order to do the maximum possible damage. 

Historically, the new pattern 80-gun ship with two decks was considered a success. The previous three-deck 80s had been somewhat unwieldy in action. In 1758, the French 80-gun Foudroyant fought an action against HMS Monmouth (66 guns, third rate) off Cartagena in Spain. The fight lasted for over four hours, and only came to an end when HMS Swiftsure (70 guns, third rate) joined the battle. Foudroyant was captured. Once brought back to England, Foudroyant was refitted and repaired. In a further upset for the French, in 1782 HMS Foudroyant captured another French ship, the Pgase, earning her then-captain, John Jervis, a knighthood for the feat. 

@@86	Three Decker

A 98-gun second rate ship-of-the-line is an over-gunned standard design: a powerful addition to any fleet. 

This three-deck warship is a modified second rate ship, and the addition of extra guns alters the balance of the vessel and consequently its handling. While a normal second rate is somewhat lumbering, this ship is even less handy and responsive to the helm. The benefits in terms of additional firepower do, however, handsomely compensate for a loss of manoeuvrability. 

Historically, the 98-gun ship was created by simply adding extra guns to the quarterdeck and increasing the weight of some of the other cannon. However, few nations chose to commission original ships of this type, preferring to build normal first rates instead. Only the Royal Navy bothered, as it needed large ships to act as flagships on overseas postings. Nine 98-gun ships were ordered during the French Revolutionary Wars, including HMS Boyne and HMS Union, both ship names emphasising loyalty to the British Crown. 

@@87	Coalition Shells

@@88	Transport

The merchantman is built for trade, although it does carry a few light guns for defence. 

This trade ship is neither blessed with speed nor firepower and can be outmanoeuvred by most naval vessels. It is built for trade, and its low upkeep costs mean a large profit from each journey. If trapped it can defend itself slightly and maybe even drive off very weak attackers, but merchants are not fighting men, and their low morale and the ships light guns are unlikely to last long against a real warship. 

British merchant trading was the strongest in the world during the Napoleonic era, and this position was protected by the Navigation Acts first passed in 1651. Trade with British colonies had to be carried out using British bottoms or British ships, not to mention British ports and mainly British crews, effectively squeezing out any competition. Other nations tried similar protectionist policies, but without as much success. Despite this legal help, British merchant owners were not without their difficulties; the Royal Navy used press gangs to recruit seamen for the ranks and experienced merchant sailors were the first to be targeted, forcing merchant owners to pay high wages for less able seamen simply to run their ships. 

@@89	Villeneuve

Pierre-Charles-Jean-Baptiste-Silvestre de Villeneuve, (born Dec. 31, 1763, Valensole, Fr.died April 22, 1806, Rennes), French admiral who commanded the French fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).

Belonging to a noble family, he entered the French Royal Navy and received rapid promotion, being named post captain in 1793 and rear admiral in 1796. He commanded a section of the French fleet in Napoleons expedition to Egypt. His flagship, the Guillaume Tell, along with the Gnreux, were the only warships to escape the French fleets general destruction during the ensuing Battle of the Nile (Aug. 1, 1798).

Villeneuve played a key role in the failed execution of Napoleons scheme for the invasion of England in 1805. In the autumn of 1804 Napoleon had named Villeneuve commander of the fleet at Toulon. The duty of Villeneuves fleet was to draw the British admiral Horatio Nelsons fleet to the West Indies, return rapidly in secret, and, in combination with other French and Spanish ships, enter the English Channel with an overwhelming naval force for the invasion of England. 

Villeneuve apparently had little confidence in the success of this operation, but nevertheless he took the command in November. In March 1805 he sailed out of Toulon and succeeded in drawing Nelson after him in a cruise out to the West Indies. Villeneuves fleet then returned to Europe in JuneJuly, during which time it fought an indecisive encounter off El Ferrol, Spain, with an English squadron led by Sir Robert Calder.

Villeneuve then turned south to the port of Cdiz, disregarding Napoleons standing orders to proceed immediately to the Channel and rendezvous with the other French and Spanish naval forces gathered there. This act of timidity on Villeneuves part effectively ended Napoleons hopes for an invasion of England while Nelsons fleet was somewhere else. 

In Cdiz Villeneuve then received orders to sail his fleet into the Mediterranean for an attack upon Naples, but, while making his preparations, he learned that another officer had been sent to replace him in his command. In a spasm of wounded vanity, he embarked his fleet out of Cdiz to face the waiting fleet of Nelson, and the result was the Battle of Trafalgar (q.v.) of October 1805. Villeneuves impulsive decision to leave Cdiz and give battle to Nelsons better-prepared fleet has been severely criticized.

At Trafalgar Villeneuve showed personal courage, but the incapacity of the Franco-Spanish fleet to maneuver gave him no opportunity to influence the course of the battle, which ended for the French in complete defeat. Villeneuve himself was captured and was taken as a prisoner to England, but he was soon released. Shortly after returning to France he committed suicide at an inn in Rennes, where he had been waiting to learn the extent of the emperors displeasure with him.

@@90	Neapolitan Infantry

The Kingdom of Naples was a French client state in southern Italy created in 1806 when the Bourbon Ferdinand IV & VII of Naples and Sicily sided with the Third Coalition against Napoleon and was in return ousted from his kingdom by a French invasion. Joseph Bonaparte, elder brother of Napoleon I, was installed in his stead and when Joseph became King of Spain in 1808, Napoleon appointed his brother-in-law Joachim Murat to take his place. Murat was later deposed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after striking at Austria in the Neapolitan War, in which he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tolentino. 

Although the Napoleonic kings were officially styled King of Naples and Sicily, British domination of the Mediterranean made it impossible for the French to gain control of Sicily, where Ferdinand had fled, and their power was confined to the mainland kingdom of Naples alone while Ferdinand continued to reside in and rule the Kingdom of Sicily. 

In 1808 Joachim Murat, husband of Napoleon's sister Caroline, was granted the crown of Naples by the Emperor after Joseph had reluctantly accepted the throne of Spain. Murat joined Napoleon in the disastrous campaign of 1812 and, as Napoleon's downfall unfolded, increasingly sought to save his own kingdom. Opening communications with the Austrians and British, Murat signed a treaty with the Austrians on January 11, 1814 in which, in return for renouncing his claims to Sicily and providing military support to the Allies in the war against his former Emperor, Austria would guarantee his continued possession of Naples. Marching his troops north, Murat's Neapolitans joined the Austrians against Napoleon's stepson, Eugene de Beauharnais, Viceroy of the Kingdom of Italy. After initially opening secret communications with Eugene to explore his options of switching sides again, Murat finally committed to the allied side and attacked Piacenza. 

Upon Napoleon's abdication on 11 April 1814 and Eugene's armistice, Murat returned to Naples, however his new allies trusted him little and he became convinced that they were about to depose him. Upon Napoleon's return in 1815, Murat struck out from Rimini at the Austrian forces in northern Italy, in what he considered a pre-emptive attack. The powers at the Congress of Vienna assumed he was in concert with Napoleon, but this was in fact the opposite of the truth, as Napoleon was then seeking to secure recognition of his return to France through promises of peace, not war. 

On 2 April Murat entered Bologna without a fight, but soon he was in headlong retreat as the Austrians crossed the Po at Occhiobello and his Neapolitan forces disintegrated at the first sign of a skirmish. Murat withdrew to Cesena, then Ancona, then Tolentino. At the Battle of Tolentino on 3 May 1815 the Neapolitan army was swept aside and, though Murat escaped to Naples, his position was irrecoverable and he soon continued his flight, leaving Naples for France. Ferdinand IV & VI was soon restored and the Napoleonic kingdom came to an end. 

@@91	Sicilian Infantry

@@92	Irish Rebel

@@93	Bavarian Infantry

The 1805 Peace of Pressburg raised Bavaria to the status of a kingdom. Accordingly, Maximilian was proclaimed its king on 1 January 1806. The King still served as an Elector until Bavaria seceded from the Holy Roman Empire on 1 August 1806. The Duchy of Berg was ceded to Napoleon only in 1806. The new kingdom faced challenges from the outset of its creation, relying on the support of Napoleonic France. 

The kingdom faced war with Austria in 1808 and from 1810 to 1814, lost territory to Wrttemberg, Italy, and then Austria. In 1808, all relics of serfdom were abolished, which had left the old empire. In the same year, Maximilian promulgated Bavaria's first written constitution. Over the next five years, it was amended numerous times in accordance with Paris' wishes.

During the French invasion of Russia in 1812 about 30,000 Bavarian soldiers were killed in action. With the Treaty of Ried of 8 October 1813 Bavaria left the Confederation of the Rhine and agreed to join the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon in exchange for a guarantee of her continued sovereign and independent status. On 14 October, Bavaria made a formal declaration of war against Napoleonic France. The treaty was passionately backed by the Crown Prince Ludwig and by Marshal von Wrede. 

With the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813 ended the German Campaign with the Coalition nations as the victors, in a complete failure for the French, although they achieved a minor victory when an army of Kingdom of Bavaria attempted to block the retreat of the French Grande Arme at Hanau.

@@94	Bavarian Cavalry

See Bavarian Infantry

@@95	Danish Infantry

During the Napoleonic Wars the conglomerate kingdom of Denmark and Norway with their North Atlantic possessions, the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and valuable overseas colonies were whirled into the global conflict of France and England, despite the efforts of being neutral. Lying down was not enough to keep Denmark out of the war.

After Napoleons victory over Russia in summer 1807, France got free hands to force Denmark into the continental system. The plan was to use the Danish fleet to invade England. An English ultimatum regarding the big Danish fleet was presented to Denmark: either to enter into an alliance with England and make the Danish fleet to Englands disposal or surrender the navy for the rest of the war to England as a pledge of Danish neutrality. On the other side Napoleonic troops were waiting at the South borders of Denmark, prepared to invade Schleswig-Holstein and Swedish troops were waiting to invade Norway.

The Danish government was taken by surprise as England landed troops North of Copenhagen in August 1807. The commander of Copenhagen denied handing over the fleet to the English. The result was three nights of bombardment of the civilians of Copenhagen by English troops, starting the night between September 2nd and 3rd. As a successful experiment the British were as the first in modern military history using fire rockets, which proved to have a dramatic effect by setting a big part of the town on fire. After a third bloody night and Copenhagen burning, the Danish commander was forced to accept a capitulation and surrender the entire Danish fleet as British property. Naval ships under construction were destroyed.

This dramatic event was a turning point for Denmark. Denmark was forced into the alliance with Napoleon and was at the end of the war in 1814 at the loosing side. Norway with all the important natural resources was incorporated in Sweden and Danish possessions in Northern Germany were diminished. In 1813 the Danish state went bankrupt. This was followed by poverty and the loss of Danish political influence in the North of Europe. The dramatic events during the British bombardment of Copenhagen were reproduced in many contemporary pictures and paintings. Four of these are presented here in this web presentation.

@@96	Danish Cavalry

See Danish Infantry

@@97	Italian Infantry

Soon after Napoleon claimed the title of emperor in 1804, the Italian Republic became a kingdom, proclaimed on March 17, 1805. Napoleon, as king of Italy, appointed his stepson, Eugne de Beauharnais, as viceroy and Antonio Aldini as secretary of state, forcing Melzi to step aside. Although Italian autonomy remained limited, Napoleons victories, which constantly increased the territory of the kingdom, provided some compensation. 

In 1809 Napoleon abolished the temporal power of the papacy and annexed Rome and the remainder of the Papal States to France. Pope Pius VII responded by excommunicating Napoleon, who in response held the pontiff prisoner, first in France and later in the Ligurian town of Savona.

As emperor of France and king of Italy, Napoleon directly controlled all of northern and central Italy. During his rule, far-reaching reforms were instituted. Although the new Italian legal codes were translated almost verbatim from the French with little regard for Italian traditions, they introduced a modern jurisprudence responsive to the rights of the individual citizen. Properties held in mortmain, the old feudal ecclesiastical tenure (specifically those of the regular clergy), were transferred to the state and sold. The remaining feudal rights and jurisdictions were abolished. Roads were improved everywhere, and both primary and higher education were strengthened. In return for higher taxes, Italians thus gained a network of new and improved services that were to hasten Italian social and economic progress and cohesion.

The Continental System, a blockade designed to close the entire European continent to British trade, was proclaimed on November 21, 1806. It was freely violated everywhere, including along the Italian coastline. Although the blockades real purpose was to promote the growth of French manufacturing, especially the silk industry, by protecting it against imports, the war economy and blockade also stimulated Italian production, prompted the emergence of machine-building and metallurgy sectors, and spurred the completion of important public works.

The army of the kingdom, inserted into the Grande Arme, took part in all of Napoleon's campaigns. In the course of its existence from 1805 to 1814 the Kingdom of Italy provided Napoleon I with roughly around 200,000 soldiers.

When Napoleon abdicated to both the thrones of France and Italy on April 11, 1814 the Napoleonic regime collapsed in Italy as it did in the rest of Europe. Beauharnais and Murat, with their respective armies, had taken part in Napoleons disastrous Russian campaign of 1812. At the moment of defeat, Murat deserted the emperor, returned to Naples, and made peace with the English and the Austrians. Joining them in their campaign against Beauharnais, though without a full commitment, he advanced with his Neapolitan troops as far as the Po River (March 1814). By the terms of the armistice of Schiarino-Rizzino (April 16, 1814), Beauharnais was able to retain control of Lombardy. But an insurrection in Milan on April 20 allowed the Austrians to occupy the entire region.

@@98	Italian Cavalry

See Italian Infantry

@@99	Rhine Infantry

On 12 July 1806, on signing the Treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine in Paris, 16 German states joined together in a confederation. Napoleon was its "protector". On 1 August, the members of the confederation formally seceded from the Holy Roman Empire, and on 6 August, following an ultimatum by Napoleon, Francis II declared the Holy Roman Empire dissolved. Francis and his Habsburg dynasty continued as emperors of Austria.

According to the treaty, the confederation was to be run by common constitutional bodies, but the individual states (in particular the larger ones) wanted unlimited sovereignty. Instead of a monarchical head of state, as the Holy Roman Emperor had had, its highest office was held by Karl Theodor von Dalberg, the former Arch Chancellor, who now bore the title of a Prince-Primate of the confederation. As such, he was President of the College of Kings and presided over the Diet of the Confederation, designed to be a parliament-like body although it never actually assembled.

In return for their support of Napoleon, some rulers were given higher statuses: Baden, Hesse, Cleves, and Berg were made into grand duchies, and Wrttemberg and Bavaria became kingdoms. Several member states were also enlarged with the absorption of the territories of Imperial counts and knights who were mediatized at that time. They had to pay a very high price for their new status, however. The Confederation was above all a military alliance: the members had to maintain substantial armies for mutual defense and supply France with large numbers of military personnel. As events played out the members of the confederation found themselves more subordinated to Napoleon than they had been to the Habsburgs when they were within the Holy Roman Empire.

After Prussia lost to France in 1806, Napoleon cajoled most of the secondary states of Germany into the Confederation of the Rhine. Eventually, an additional 23 German states joined the Confederation. It was at its largest in 1808, when it included 36 states, four kingdoms, five grand duchies, 13 duchies, seventeen principalities, and the Free Hansa towns of Hamburg, Lbeck, and Bremen. 

The Confederation of the Rhine collapsed in 1813, in the aftermath of Napoleon's failed campaign against the Russian Empire. Many of its members changed sides after the Battle of Leipzig, when it became apparent Napoleon would lose the War of the Sixth Coalition.

@@100	Polish Infantry

The Duchy of Warsaw, also called Grand Duchy of Warsaw, French Duch or Grand-Duch de Varsovie, was an independent Polish state created by Napoleon. It became a focal point of efforts to restore the Polish nation, which had been destroyed by the Partitions of Poland made by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772, 1793, and 1795.

Established by the Treaties of Tilsit (July 7 and 9, 1807) after the Poles had helped Napoleon defeat Prussia, the duchy consisted originally of the major portion of the central Polish provinces that had been absorbed by Prussia in 1793 and 1795. Exceptions were Danzig (Gdansk), which became a free city; the district of Bialystok, which was ceded to Russia; and the region of the Notec (German Netze) river, acquired by Prussia in 1772, which was added to the duchy. In 1809 the duchy was increased by the territory that Austria had seized in the Third Partition.

Shortly after the Duchy of Warsaw had been founded, Napoleon dictated its constitution (July 22, 1807). It was framed on the French model and established a powerful executive branch of government, which was headed by Frederick Augustus I, the king of Saxony and grandson of Augustus III. The Napoleonic Code became the law of the duchy (May 1, 1808).

Polands hopes for greater things revived once more when Napoleon announced his war against Russia (1812) as his second Polish war. The duchy, by an immense effort, put an army corps of nearly 98,000 men into the field. But the calamity that overtook Napoleon in Russia also sealed the fortunes of the duchy. The remainder of the Polish troops faithfully followed Napoleon in his campaign of 1813-14, during which the heroic leader of the Poles, Prince Jozef Antoni Poniatowski, perished in covering the emperors retreat from Leipzig.

On Feb. 8, 1813, the Russians occupied Warsaw and assumed control of the duchy. Subsequently the Congress of Vienna determined that the Duchy of Warsaw was to be divided into three parts: the Grand Duchy of Poznan, which was returned to Prussia; the free Republic of Cracow (Krakow), which was placed under the protection of Russia, Prussia, and Austria; and the Congress Kingdom of Poland, which was joined to Russia by making the Russian emperor its king.

@@101	Polish Lancers

See Polish Infantry

@@102	Dutch Infantry

The Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napolon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom for his third brother, Louis Bonaparte, in order to better control the Netherlands. The name of the leading province, Holland, was now taken for the whole country. In 1807 Prussian East Frisia and Jever were added to the kingdom but in 1809, after a British invasion, Holland had to surrender all territories south of the river Rhine to France. 

Napolon felt the Batavian Republic was becoming too independent for his liking. He thus forced the Dutch to accept his brother, Louis Bonaparte, as king. The alternative would have been outright annexation to France. 

Despite these circumstances, many citizens were very happy with his arrival. But there was also opposition, because many feared the new King would introduce the dreaded conscription. This Louis would not do, much to the dismay of Napolon, who demanded that King Louis would raise a large army to guard the North from British invasion, and to aid the French armies in Germany and Spain. Apart from the lavishly uniformed Royal Guard, the army of the Kingdom of Holland would always be short of recruits, leading to units being disbanded or amalgamated. Acts to recruit more troops, for instance by raising a Jewish regiment or by adding all male orphans to the army as Velites, were of little effect, the latter leading to public riots and accusations of introducing the conscription. 

Napolon intended for Louis to be little more than the prefect of Holland. For example, the ministers were provided mostly by Napolon. However, Louis had his own mind, and was determined to be as independent of his elder brother as possible. In addition to refusing to introduce conscription, he made a sincere effort to learn the Dutch language, even going as far as to adopt the Dutch spelling of his name, Lodewijk. He declared himself Dutch rather than French and demanded that his ministers renounce their French citizenships as well. He also required his ministers and court to only speak Dutch. 

Due to the economic blockade enforced by Napolon, the economy of the Kingdom of Holland was further ruined; the smuggling of British goods increased. Louis hesitated to oppose this, which led Napolon to sending units of Douanes Imperiales to Holland. 

After British troops invaded in the Walcheren Campaign of 1809, Napolon lost patience with his hesitant brother and decided to make Holland an integral part of France. After annexing the southern provinces of Holland into the Empire, he forced King Louis to abdicate in 1810. Louis' son (and Napolon's nephew), Napolon Louis, reigned for a week as Louis (Lodewijk) II before Napolon annexed the rest of the kingdom into the French Empire. During that period Queen Hortense acted as Regent of the Kingdom. 

@@103	Dutch Cavalry

See Dutch Infantry 

@@104	Westphalian Infantry

The Kingdom of Westphalia was a kingdom in Germany, with a population of 2.6 million, that existed from 1807 to 1813. It included territory in Hesse and other parts of present-day Germany. While formally independent, it was a vassal state of the First French Empire and was ruled by Napoleon's brother Jrme Bonaparte. It was named after Westphalia, but this was a misnomer since the kingdom had little territory in common with that area; rather the kingdom mostly covered territory formerly known as Eastphalia.

Napoleon imposed the first written modern constitution in Germany, a French-style central administration, and agricultural reform. The Kingdom liberated the serfs and gave everyone equal rights and the right to a jury trial. In 1808 the Kingdom passed Germany's first laws granting Jews equal rights, thereby providing a model for reform in the other German states. Westphalia seemed to be progressive in immediately enacting and enforcing the new reforms.

The country was relatively poor but Napoleon demanded heavy taxes and payments and conscripted soldiers. Few of the men who marched into Russia with Napoleon in 1812 ever returned. The Kingdom was bankrupt by 1812. When Napoleon was retreating in the face of Allied advances in 1813, the Kingdom was overrun by the Allies and (in 1815) most of its territories became Prussian ruled. Most of the reforms, however, remained in place.

@@105	Westphalian Cavalry

See Westphalian Infantry

@@106	Wrtemberg Infantry

In the wars after the French Revolution in 1789, Napoleon, the emperor of the French, rose to be the ruler of the European continent. An enduring result of his policy was a new order of the southwestern German political world. When the French Revolution threatened to be exported throughout Europe in 1792, Baden joined forces against France. Its countryside was devastated in the ensuing battles. In 1796, the margrave was compelled to pay an indemnity and to cede his territories on the left bank of the Rhine to France. Fortune, however, soon returned to his side. 

In 1803, largely owing to the good offices of Alexander I, emperor of Russia, the margrave received the Bishopric of Konstanz, part of the Rhenish Palatinate, and other smaller districts, together with the dignity of a prince-elector. Changing sides in 1805, he fought for Napoleon, with the result that, by the peace of Pressburg in that year, he obtained the Breisgau and other territories at the expense of the Habsburgs (see Further Austria). In 1806, the Baden margrave joined the Confederation of the Rhine, declared himself a sovereign prince, became a grand duke, and received additional territory. 

On 1 January 1806, Duke Frederick II assumed the title of King Frederick I, abrogated the constitution, and united old and new Wrttemberg. Subsequently, he placed church lands under the control of the state and received some formerly self-governing areas under the "mediatisation" process. In 1806, he joined the Confederation of the Rhine and received further additions of territory containing 160,000 inhabitants. A little later, by the peace of Vienna in October 1809, about 110,000 more persons came under his rule. 

In return for these favors, Frederick joined Napoleon Bonaparte in his campaigns against Prussia, Austria and Russia. Some 16,000 of his subjects marched as soldiers with the French invasion of Russia to take Moscow; only a few hundred survived to return. After the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, King Frederick deserted the waning fortunes of the French emperor. By a treaty made with Metternich at Fulda in November 1813, he secured the confirmation of his royal title and of his recent acquisitions of territory. He directed his forces to fight with allies in their attack on France. 

In 1815, the king joined the German Confederation, but the Congress of Vienna made no change in the extent of his lands. In the same year, he proposed a new constitution to the representatives of his people, but they rejected it. 

@@107	Border

@@108	Swiss Infantry

The Helvetic Republic proved to be virtually ungovernable as it had no money and Parliament was split between federalist and centralist factions. This led to coups and a civil war, whereupon Napoleon intervened as mediator of the Swiss Confederation.

In March 1803, Napoleon summoned a Swiss envoy to Paris and handed him the Act of Mediation, which restored the federal system with largely independent cantons. One major change, however, was that the former Associated Places and subject territories were elevated to full cantonal status. This led to the Confederation being expanded by six cantons in 1803: St Gallen, Graubnden, Aargau, Thurgau, Ticino and Vaud.

The Confederations neutrality was formally recognised again, but a military capitulation and the defensive alliance meant that it had to continue supplying troops for the French army. Many Swiss soldiers died fighting for Napoleon, including most of the 9,000 or so men who
had to take part in the Russian campaign of 1812.

The Swiss became famous for their fighting spirit during Napoleons retreat from Moscow in 1812. For a whole day, some 1,300 Swiss fought alongside allied troops at the Battle of Berezina to keep the far more numerous Russian army at bay while the rest of the French army crossed the river on pontoons. The majority of the Swiss troops paid for this campaign with their lives, only 700 soldiers eventually returned to Switzerland.

After Napoleons defeat at the Battle of the Nations in Leipzig in 1813, the Russians, Austrians, Prussians and their allies advanced towards France and crossed the Rhine near Basel in 1813-14. Until Napoleons final defeat at Waterloo in 1815, Switzerland remained under the influence of the victorious powers, who reorganised Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.  

@@109	Brunswick Infantry

Frederick William, duke of Brunswick (1771-1815), was one of the most implacable enemies of Napoleonic France, and became known as the 'Black Duke'.  He inherited his duchy in 1806, after his father was mortally wounded at the battle of Auerstdt (14 October 1806), but he wasn't left in possession of it for long. In 1807, after the Russians had been forced to come to terms with the French, Brunswick was seized under the terms of the Treaty of Tilset and used to create the Kingdom of Westphalia, which was then given to Jrome Bonaparte.

In 1809 the exiled Duke formed the 'Black Legion', a military unit that served in the Austrian army. The Legion dressed in black, and used the death's head insignia. Although the Duke was fiercely anti-French, his former subjects dont appear to have been so concerned, and very few Westphalian officers or men joined the legion. Instead Brunswick had to recruit most of his men in Bohemia, then part of the Austrian empire.

The legion fought in the Franco-Austrian War of 1809. It was originally part of a force led by General Carl Friedrich Freiherr on Am Ende, which occupied Leipzig, and then became part of IX Corps, under General Michale Freiherr von Keinmayer. Brunswick's men occupied Dresden, where their presence greatly annoyed Napoleon, not least because his brother Jrome didn't make much of an effort to expel him.

After some initial Austrian successes, the war ended as yet another French victory. In order to keep fighting, Brunswick marched his troops across Germany. After storming Halberstadt, the duke moved on to Brunswick, before moving north to Elsfleth on the Weser, where he was evacuated by the Royal Navy and landed on the Isle of Wight.

The Legion entered British service, and was sent to Spain to serve under Wellington. Brunswick himself didn't accompany the Legion into the field, probably greatly to Wellington's relief!

As Germany rose up against France in 1813, the duke was restored to his Duchy. He formed a new Brunswick army, which he led in the Waterloo campaign. This force was a mix of new recruits and veterans from Spain, and used the current Prussian drill regulations. The duke was killed while rallying his troops at the battle of Quatre Bras. He had been ordered to support the Dutch, and his army came under heavy artillery fire. After a failed cavalry charge the Duke attempted to rally his troops and was shot through the liver.

@@110	Brunswick Cavalry

See Brunswick Infantry

@@111	Portuguese Infantry

When the Treaties of Tilsit ended the War of the Fourth Coalition, Emperor Napoleon of France had already expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with the United Kingdom. Napoleon's ire was provoked because Portugal was Britain's oldest ally in Europe, Britain was finding new opportunities for trade with Portugal's colony in Brazil, the Royal Navy often used Lisbon's port in its operations against France, and he wished to seize Portugal's fleet. Furthermore, Prince John of Braganza, regent for his insane mother Queen Maria I had failed to comply with the emperor's Continental System, a prohibition against British trade. In addition, the seizure of Portugal would fit neatly into Napoleon's future designs against Spain.

On 19 July 1807, Napoleon ordered his Portuguese ambassador to inform that country to close its ports to British shipping by 1 September. On 2 August the 1st Corps of the Gironde Army of Observation was officially brought into being, with General of Division Jean-Andoche Junot in command. Shortly afterward, the First French Empire placed all Portuguese shipping in its ports under embargo. On 23 September, the emperor made his intentions clear when he publicly threatened to depose the Braganzas in front of the Portuguese minister to France. 

Meanwhile, on 12 August 1807 the French and Spanish ambassadors delivered their ultimata to the Prince Regent of Portugal. The notes required that John must declare war on Great Britain, put his fleet at France and Spain's disposal, seize all British trade in his ports, and put all British subjects under arrest. John agreed to suspend diplomatic relations with Britain and close his ports, but he shrank from seizing British merchants and their goods. This was deemed inadequate by Napoleon and the French and Spanish ambassadors requested their passports and left the country on 30 September.

On 12 October, Junot's corps began crossing the Bidasoa River into Spain at Irun. Soon after this event, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed between France and Spain. The document was drawn up by Napoleon's marshal of the palace Graud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo [es], an agent for Manuel de Godoy, Prince of the Peace. The treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. Porto (Oporto) and the northern part was to become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania under Charles Louis of Etruria. The southern portion would fall to Godoy as the Principality of the Algarves. The rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French. It is probable that Napoleon never had any intention of carrying out the treaty's provisions. Aside from his desire to occupy Portugal, his real purpose may have been to introduce large French forces into Spain in order to facilitate its subsequent takeover.

France invaded Portugal on November 12, 1807 and quickly occupied the country. By the following spring, the occupation army numbered 25,000 active soldiers, thanks to the approximately 4,000 reinforcements that arrived in early 1808. The situation changed after the Spanish Dos de Mayo Uprising. Junot soon found that all communications with Paris were cut off by the Spanish revolt. On 6 June 1808, news of the rebellion reached Porto where General Belesta was stationed with 6,000 Spanish troops, Taranco having died during the winter. After seizing General of Division Franois Jean Baptiste Quesnel and his 30-man escort, Belesta marched his troops away to join the armies fighting the French. Between 9 and 12 June, northwest Portugal erupted in revolt. The next action was the Battle of vora on 29 July 1808. British intervention occurred in early August when General Sir Arthur Wellesley and 9,000 soldiers landed in Mondego Bay.

@@112	Portuguese Cavalry

See Portuguese Infantry

@@113	Saxon Infantry

The Kingdom of Saxony (German: Knigreich Sachsen), lasting between 1806 and 1918, was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic Germany. The kingdom was formed from the Electorate of Saxony.

Before 1806, Saxony was part of the Holy Roman Empire, a thousand-year-old entity that had become highly decentralised over the centuries. The rulers of the Electorate of Saxony of the House of Wettin had held the title of elector for several centuries. When the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in August 1806 following the defeat of Emperor Francis II by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz, the electorate was raised to the status of an independent kingdom with the support of the First French Empire, then the dominant power in Central Europe. The last elector of Saxony became King Frederick Augustus I. 

Following the defeat of Saxony's ally Prussia at the Battle of Jena in 1806, Saxony joined the Confederation of the Rhine, and remained within the Confederation until its dissolution in 1813 with Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Leipzig. Following the battle, in which Saxony, virtually alone of all the German states, had fought alongside the French. 

King Frederick Augustus I was deserted by his troops, taken prisoner by the Prussians and considered to have forfeited his throne by the allies, who put Saxony under Prussian occupation and administration. This was probably more due to the Prussian desire to annex Saxony than to any crime on Frederick Augustus's part, and the fate of Saxony would prove to be one of the main issues at the Congress of Vienna. 

In the end, 40% of the Kingdom, including the historically significant Wittenberg, home of the Protestant Reformation, was annexed by Prussia, but Frederick Augustus was restored to the throne in the remainder of his kingdom, which still included the major cities of Dresden and Leipzig. The Kingdom also joined the German Confederation, the new organization of the German states to replace the fallen Holy Roman Empire.

@@114	Saxon Cavalry

See Saxon Infantry

@@115	Swedish Infantry

In 1803 Britain had declared war on France, at this time Sweden had remained neutral together with the Nordic countries Denmark/Norway and Prussia. But after the execution of Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Cond in 1804, the Swedish government broke all diplomatic ties with France and concluded a convention allowing the British to use Swedish Pomerania as a military base against France, in exchange for payments. Russia also promised Sweden that 40,000 men would come to the aid of the country if it was threatened by French forces. So on 9 August 1805 Sweden joined the Third Coalition and declared war on France on 31 October.

In the beginning of November 1805, a combined British, Russian and Swedish force of about 12,000 men were sent from Swedish Pomerania to liberate French-held Hanover. The offensive against Hanover was repeatedly delayed because of Prussia's partial reluctance that the Swedes and the Russians moved troops through Prussian territory. However, in December 1805, after the battle of Austerlitz, the British and the Russian forces started to evacuate Hanover, leaving only a small Swedish force alone to face the French. In April 1806, the Swedes were also forced to retreat back to Swedish Pomerania after an agreement had been concluded between Prussia and France.

But during the summer of 1806 Prussia formed the Fourth Coalition against France, which gave Sweden the right to occupy Lauenburg. But during the autumn, the French forces advanced rapidly and soon much of the western German regions were occupied, this forced the Swedish troops on a retreat towards Lbeck. The plan was that the troops from there could take the sea route to Stralsund in order to avoid the advancing French forces. The Swedes were still caught by the French on the 6 November while they loaded their ships at Lbeck, and following the battle of Lbeck about 1,000 Swedish soldiers had to surrender to the numerically superior French forces. 

On 6 August 1807, 50,000 French, Spanish and Dutch troops under Marshal Guillaume-Marie-Anne Brune began an assault on Swedish Pomerania and besieged Stralsund again. On 20 August 1807, the defenders of the city capitulated and the remains of the Swedish army was surrounded at Rgen. However, Swedish General Johan Christopher Toll managed to conclude the convention of Schlatkow with Marshal Brune on favorable terms and his forces withdrew to Sweden with all of their munitions of war on 7 September.

The Franco-Russian Treaty of Tilsit left Britain and Sweden without other allies in the war against France. On 21 February 1808, Russia joined the war against Sweden by invading Finland and on 14 March the same year, Denmark-Norway also declared war on Sweden. Danish and French-Spanish troops began preparations for an invasion of Skne in Sweden, but the plan was soon aborted, and the war was instead directed to the Norwegian-Swedish border. Sir John Moore's expedition sent by the British government to protect Sweden from possible French-Danish attack arrived on 3 May 1808 and stayed until July when it was redirected to Portugal. 

Napoleon's plans to invade Sweden was never realized due to the British activity on the Baltic Sea, the weakness of the Danish military and hesitations of French Marshal Bernadotte. Bernadotte's actions made him popular enough to be elected as a Swedish Crown Prince after the coup d'tat in March 1809. On 30 August 1809, the new Swedish government was to conclude the Treaty of Fredrikshamn with Russia legitimizing the Russian annexation of Finland and land. A peace treaty between Sweden and Denmark-Norway was signed with no territorial adjustments on 10 December 1809.

@@116	Swedish Cavalry

See Swedish Infantry

@@117	Frgate

This is the smallest vessel styled a ship-of-the-line of battle, carrying some 50 long guns. 

Ships-of-the-line are the mainstay of fighting fleets; they are strong and stable gun platforms for battering enemy fleets to pieces. A 50-gun ship-of-the-line is a square-rigged, two-deck vessel, carrying two calibres of cannon: 24- and 18-pounders, with the heavier guns mounted on the lower deck. Though cheap compared to other two-deck warships, their broadside is still effective at close range, and best employed against frigates and smaller craft. A 50-gun ship should not be expected to last long in combat against larger battleships. 

By the 1750s it was obvious that 50-gun ships lacked the hull strength and firepower to stand in the line of battle against larger vessels. Because of their size, there was a new production of British 50-gun ships to serve in shallow coastal waters during the American Revolution but, apart from this, their usefulness in battle was largely over. Various national admiralties removed these small battle ships from active service, or sent them to minor overseas stations where they were unlikely to encounter powerful enemies. Some survived as converted troop transports.

@@118	Deux-ponts

The 74-gun ship is an excellent blend of firepower and handling. It is a stable gun platform and has more guns than many armies! 

The 74 is a supremely practical naval weapon and regarded as the best balance between defensive strength and manoeuvrability. A two-deck design, it is strong enough to mount very heavy 32-pounder cannons on its lower gun deck. These, when combined with the upper decks 18-pounders, give it a devastating broadside, although this is best delivered at close quarters. 

The French developed the 74-gun ship concept in the mid-18th Century. The design was so good that other navies lost no time in copying it for themselves or taking French ships in action. Many French vessels were made from green timber that worked in heavy seas and therefore leaked; the French accepted this because they believed the green timber made the ships resilient. British 74s were well built too, although there was a regrettable tendency to save money by recycling timbers, along with their woodworm and rot, from older vessels! 

The last 74, HMS Implacable, was finally scuttled in 1949! Built in 1800 by the French, and then captured by the British at Trafalgar in 1805, she stayed in active service until 1842. She ended her days as a coal hulk. 

@@119	Trois-ponts

This is a heavily-armed vessel, with a destructive close range broadside and a very strong hull to withstand return fire. 

These large two-decker ships-of-the-line can hold more and heavier guns than most two-deck vessels. They carry 32- and 24-pounders. These powerful cannon do not have the fast reloading times of lighter pieces, but make up for that with weight of shot. It is most advantageous for a captain to hold his fire until close to the enemy, in order to do the maximum possible damage. 

Historically, the new pattern 80-gun ship with two decks was considered a success. The previous three-deck 80s had been somewhat unwieldy in action. In 1758, the French 80-gun Foudroyant fought an action against HMS Monmouth (66 guns, third rate) off Cartagena in Spain. The fight lasted for over four hours, and only came to an end when HMS Swiftsure (70 guns, third rate) joined the battle. Foudroyant was captured. Once brought back to England, Foudroyant was refitted and repaired. In a further upset for the French, in 1782 HMS Foudroyant captured another French ship, the Pgase, earning her then-captain, John Jervis, a knighthood for the feat. 

@@120	24 pdr Shells

@@121	Royal Marines

The history of the Royal Marines began on 28 October 1664 with the formation of the Duke of York and Albany's Maritime Regiment of Foot soon becoming known as the Admiral's Regiment. During the War of the Spanish Succession the most historic achievement of the Marines was the capture of the mole during the assault on Gibraltar (sailors of the Royal Navy captured the Rock itself) in 1704. On 5 April 1755, His Majesty's Marine Forces, fifty Companies in three Divisions, headquartered at Portsmouth, Chatham and Plymouth, were formed by Order of Council under Admiralty control.

During the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Marines participated in every notable naval battle on board the Royal Navy's ships and also took part in multiple amphibious actions. Marines had a dual function aboard ships of the Royal Navy in this period; routinely, they ensured the security of the ship's officers and supported their maintenance of discipline in the ship's crew, and in battle, they engaged the enemy's crews, whether firing from positions on their own ship, or fighting in boarding actions.

The number of marines on board Royal Naval ships depended on the size of the ship and was generally kept at a ratio of one marine per ship gun, plus officers. For example: a First Rate Ship of the Line contained 104 marines while a 28 gun Frigate had 29. Between 1807 and 1814, the total marine establishment number was 31,400 men. Manpower (recruitment and retention) problems saw regular infantry units from the British Army being used as shipboard replacements on numerous occasions. 

One result of the Royal Navy's dominance of the seas in Europe, and the blockading of the French Navy's ports, was that manpower constraints became less of an issue at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. From 1812, such maritime supremacy meant the Mediterranean and Channel Fleets were assigned additional marines for use 'in destroying signal communications and other petty harassing modes of warfare'.

@@122	Art.  pied 12lb

Foot artillery batteries are the core of an army on campaign: cannons win battles. 

Despite the name, foot artillery batteries are towed by horses. The artillerymen, however, march alongside their pieces rather than ride. Because the guns can be loaded with round or canister shot they are effective at long and short range: canister shot turns cannons into gigantic fowling pieces. Artillery is slower than the rest of the army and, if left behind and undefended, will be vulnerable to cavalry attacks. Disabling the enemys guns should always be a high priority for a general, and artillerymen only have the most rudimentary sword skills for their defence. 

By the late eighteenth century, improvements in artillery design had drastically reduced the weight of cannons and their field carriages. Design improvements had reduced the time to get into action from the march. By carefully positioning the barrel in the centre of the gun carriage, the balance, and manoeuvrability of guns was significantly improved. Napoleon was an artilleryman, and his use of guns in concentration against small parts of the enemy battle line persuaded many nations to increase the size of their own artillery corps. 

@@123	12 pdr Shells

@@124	Garde Frontalier

@@125	32 pdr Shells

@@126	Poniatowski

Jozef Antoni Poniatowski, (born May 7, 1763, Viennadied Oct. 19, 1813, Leipzig), was a Polish patriot and military hero, who became a marshal of France.

Initially an officer in the Austrian army, Poniatowski was transferred to the Polish army in 1789 at the request of his uncle, King Stanislaw II August Poniatowski of Poland. He distinguished himself against the Russians in 1792 and took part in Tadeusz Kosciuszkos anti-Russian revolt in 1794. 

Poniatowski retired in 1795, after the Third Partition of Poland, but he was named commander in chief of the Duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon in 1807. He led a Polish corps in Napoleons Russian campaign of 1812 and during the Battle of Leipzig (Oct. 1619, 1813) was made a marshal of France. On the last day of the battle the wounded marshal died in an attempt to cross the Elster River on horseback.

@TERRAIN_AND_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTIONS

@@TERRAIN_INDEX
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			; 
-1,			;
-1,			; Extra terrrain Bbb1
-1,			; Extra terrrain Ccc1
-1,			; Extra terrrain Ddd1
-1,			; Extra terrrain Eee1
-1,			; Extra terrrain fff1
-2,	;	MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

;Terrain Types
@@00

@@01

@@02

@@03

@@04

@@05

@@06

@@07

@@08

@@09

@@10

@@11

@@12

@@13

@@14

@@15

@@16

@@17

@@18

@@19

@@20

@@21

@@22

@@23

@@24

@@25

@@26

@@27

@@28

@@29

@@30

@@31

@@32

@GOVERNMENT_DESCRIPTIONS

@@GOVERNMENT_INDEX
0,			; Anarchy
1,			; Despotism
5,			; Monarchy
2,			; Communism
4,			; Fundamentalism
6,			; Republic
3,			; Democracy
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Anarchy
Anarchy represents not so much a government type as the lack of any stable government. Anarchy occurs when your civilization's government falls, or when you decide to have a Revolution. After a few turns of Anarchy, you can rebuild a new government. Anarchy is similar to Despotism, except that the corruption rate is VERY HIGH. However, no taxes are collected during a period of Anarchy, and no scientific research is conducted.

@@Despotism	
In a Despotism, the ruler has absolute control over his or her subjects, and this control is usually enforced by the military. This system has a tendency to minimize individual freedom, and reduce the efficiency of production efforts. 

* Each unit above the city size costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one unhappy citizen content.

Despotism has a high rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Despotism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 60%.
* Any terrain square that ordinarily produces three or more of any resource (Food, Shields, or Trade) produces one less.
* Because of Despotism's high rate of corruption, it is almost always an inferior form of government. Try to switch to a Monarchy as soon as possible.

@@Communism
A Communist government is ruled by a controlling party, with a single person, known as a chairman, acting as the head of state. In a true Communist system, all property is owned collectively by the people, and labor is organized to be equally advantageous to all people. This ideal has never truly been realized, however, and the "Communist" governments of the world are usually much different.

* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes two unhappy citizens content.

Under Communism, state control of the economy eliminates organized crime. Your cities, therefore, experience no corruption.

* All Spy units produced under Communist governments are Veterans.
* Under Communism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%. 

* Communism is best for large, far-flung empires that need to maintain a large military.
* Use your powerful Spies to steal technology from the capitalist pigs!

@@Democracy
A Democracy is ruled by a president elected by the people. The rulings of the president are subject to review by the Senate, a group of elected representatives who serve the best interests of the citizens. Democracy allows its citizens a higher degree of personal freedom and involvement than any other form of government.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of a friendly city) causes two citizens in its home city to become unhappy.

Democracies experience no corruption or waste.

* Tax/Luxury/Science rates can be set to any level desired.
* Under a Democracy, each square that ordinarily produces at least one unit of Trade produces an extra unit of Trade.
* The units and cities of a Democracy are immune to bribery in any form.
* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Democracies can produce spectacular amounts of revenue and scientific research. However, because of the severe happiness restrictions on military units, this form of government tends to be viable only for large, advanced civilizations.
* Increasing your Luxury rate and building Improvements and Wonders can help alleviate unhappiness.

@@Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is a form of government organized around a central set of beliefs. These beliefs, usually religious in nature, form a rigid guideline for the actions and reactions of both the ruler and the people. In a Fundamentalist society, the people and the rulers are entirely devoted to their beliefs, and are usually willing to die to preserve them.

* Each unit beyond the fourth unit costs one Shield per turn (except Fanatics, which never require maintenance).
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Under Fundamentalism, no citizen is ever unhappy!

Fundamentalism has a very low rate of corruption.

* Under Fundamentalism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.
* Under Fundamentalism, all Science production is HALVED.
* Improvements that normally convert unhappy citizens to content citizens produce "tithes" (money) equivalent to the number of people they would normally convert, and require no maintenance.
* The diplomatic penalties for terrorist acts committed by Diplomats and Spies is reduced.

* Fundamentalism eliminates all happiness problems and provides excellent revenue, although research tends to languish.

@@Monarchy
A Monarchy is ruled by a single person, known as a monarch. The monarch's rule is less absolute than that of a despot, and he or she usually has the acceptance of at least the upper-class. The aristocrats under this system of government have some economic freedom, allowing the civilization to be more productive. 

* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one unhappy citizen content.

Monarchy has a moderate rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Monarchy, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 70%.

* Monarchy is an excellent form of government for a young civilization.

@@Republic
A Republic is an assembly of autonomous city-states under the control of a central government. Although the central government has the ultimate say in matters that affect the society as a whole, the city-states are given a certain amount of latitude in the governing of local affairs. Decisions are made by the ruler, but are subject to review by a group of officials known as the Senate.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit beyond the first unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of a friendly city) causes one citizen in its home city to become unhappy.

Republics experience a low rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Republic, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.
* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Switching to a Republic can give an astounding boost to your Science and Luxury revenues, although you will probably be forced to shift some Trade to Luxuries in order to prevent unhappiness.
* Republics make it difficult and expensive to keep a sizable army in the field, but building certain Improvements and Wonders can help to alleviate this problem.

@CONCEPT_DESCRIPTIONS

@@Disband
When a friendly unit becomes obsolete, costs too much to maintain, or causes unhappiness among your population, you might want to eliminate the unit. To eliminate a unit, order it to disband by holding down the shift key and pressing "D", or by selecting "Disband" from the Orders menu. Once disbanded, the unit is permanently removed from the game.

When a unit is disbanded inside a friendly city, half of the unit's production cost in Shields is added to the production of whatever unit, Improvement, or Wonder is currently under production in the city.

@@Fortify
Roman legions on campaign halted their march early enough each evening to build a completely fortified camp for the night. They had learned the value of defensive fortifications when under attack. Where possible, it was the standard practice of most armies to build defensive works of some type whenever expecting an attack. Fortified defenders had their fighting strength multiplied, making it much harder to defeat them.

Ground units can be ordered to fortify by pressing the "F" key, or by selecting "Fortify" from the Orders menu. The defensive value of fortified units is increased by 50 percent.

@@Fortress
Once your civilization has discovered Construction, Settlers and Engineers have the ability to construct fortresses. Fortresses can be utilized to defend city perimeters and to block key points of access from enemy armies. A properly manned fortress can provide an effective defense by doubling the defensive strength of all units stationed within. Unlike normal combat, units stacked within a fortress defend and are destroyed one at a time in battle, rather than being destroyed simultaneously. Fortresses themselves do not suffer damage in the attack.

Settlers and Engineers can construct fortresses by pressing the "F" key, or choosing the Build Fortress command from the Orders menu. Units within a fortress have their defensive strengths doubled. Under a Republic, units stationed inside fortresses built within three squares of their home city do not cause unhappiness.

@@Irrigation
When the early farmers moved down from the hills into the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers, they had to develop the technology of irrigation. The freshwater rivers passed through lands essentially barren due to the lack of rainfall. Through irrigation, water could be removed from the rivers and spread on the nearby land, making it suitable for farming.

Irrigation increases Food production in Grasslands, Plains, Deserts, and Hills. Only squares vertically or horizontally adjacent to water (Oceans or Rivers) or another irrigated square can be irrigated. After the discovery of Refrigeration, terrain squares can be double-irrigated to create farmland. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to irrigate by pressing the "I" key, or by selecting "Build Irrigation" from the Orders menu.

@@Luxuries
The provision of Luxuries for your citizens is indicated by the goblet icons in the Resource Box of the City Display. Each two Luxuries makes one content citizen happy, or one unhappy citizen content. The amount of Luxuries a city produces is mainly determined by the percentage of Trade you have allocated to Luxuries. This can be adjusted using the "Change Tax Rate" command on the Kingdom menu. A city's Luxuries can also be increased by building certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, and by converting citizens into Entertainers.

@@Mining
Early civilizations had little difficulty locating nearly pure deposits of useful metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, lying exposed on the Earth's surface. As time passed, the surface deposits were exhausted, and people began digging into the ground to look for more. Mining and excavation for metals and other valuable materials continues today.

Mining increases the Shield production of Deserts and Mountains by one, and increases the Shield production of Hills by 3. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to dig mines by pressing the "M" key, or by choosing the "Build Mine" command from the Orders menu.

@@Pillage
The terrain improvements built by other civilizations (irrigation, mines, roads, etc.) can be destroyed by moving a unit into the improved terrain square and ordering the unit to pillage. This reduces the production value of the land, and forces your enemy to re-develop the terrain.

Units can be ordered to pillage by holding down the shift key and pressing "P", or by choosing the "Pillage" command from the Orders menu. The unit must be ordered to pillage once for each of the terrain improvements you want to destroy. A fully developed terrain square (farmland with a railroad, for example) must be pillaged four times in order to remove all improvements.

@@Pollution
Pollution is most commonly caused by the excessive production of Shields in a city; however, it may also be caused by large city populations (after the discovery of the Automobile), nuclear attacks, or the meltdown of a Nuclear Plant. When a city poses a potential pollution problem, skulls on yellow triangles appear in the Information Box of the City Display. The more skulls a city generates, the higher the city's chance of polluting a terrain square within the city radius each turn. When world pollution reaches sufficiently critical levels, there is a chance that global warming can occur.

Pollution can be cleaned up by moving Settlers or Engineers into the polluted square and pressing the "P" key, or choosing the "Clean Up Pollution" command from the Orders menu. Pollution production of cities can be reduced through the construction of certain City Improvements, or by reducing the city's Shield production.

@@Railroads
Railroads revolutionized transportation by providing a relatively cheap and fast method of moving people, raw materials, finished goods, and troops over great distances. Not only did they support and encourage industrial growth by dramatically reducing transport time and costs, they also spurred technological research. Railroads were among the first great industrial corporations.

Railroads can be built by Settlers and Engineers after the discovery of the Railroad. They are constructed by moving onto terrain containing a road, and pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the "Build Railroad" command from the Orders menu. Units moving along a railroad expend no movement points. Railroads increase Shield and Trade production by 50 percent (rounded down).

@@Roads
A network of good quality roads improves travel between cities. Roads were important to ancient civilizations for trade and the movement of troops. As technology grew, roads were improved. Modern, paved roads are passable in almost any type of weather, and can be traversed much more quickly than dirt roads.

Roads can be built by Settlers and Engineers by pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the "Build Road" command from the Orders menu. Roads can be built in any terrain except Oceans; however, they cannot be built in a River square until the discovery of Bridge Building. Units moving along roads expend only one third of a movement point per square, regardless of terrain type. Roads also increase the amount of Trade produced by Deserts, Plains, Grasslands, and any natural resource that already generates trade.

@@Science
The amount of scientific research contributed by a city is indicated by the beaker icons shown in the Resource Chart of the City Display. At the start of each turn, the science output of each city is added to the research project currently in progress, eventually resulting in the discovery of a new Civilization Advance. The more beakers each city produces, the faster new Advances are discovered. The amount of science produced by your civilization is primarily determined by the amount of incoming Trade you have allocated to science. This percentage can be adjusted by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" command on the Kingdom menu.

The science output of individual cities and your civilization as a whole can also be increased by building certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into Scientists.

@@Sentry
Units ordered to go on sentry duty appear as gray silhouettes. These units are removed from the movement queue, and remain on sentry duty until another unit moves into their sight range or until they are manually reactivated. Units on sentry duty inside a city are automatically loaded onto ships (up to the ship's unit carrying capacity) when the ship leaves the city.

Units are placed on sentry duty by pressing the "S" key, or by choosing the "Sentry" option on the Orders menu. Damaged units placed on sentry inside a city become active when they have been completely repaired.

@@Shields
The production of raw materials by your cities is represented by shield icons. Thus, raw materials are commonly referred to as "Shields". The number of Shields produced by each city is displayed in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Shields are used to support units. Each unit might, depending on government type and other circumstances, require that its home city expend one Shield per turn to support the unit. Excess Shields not used to support units are used for the production of City Improvements, Wonders of the World, and new units.

Shield production largely depends on the type of terrain surrounding the city. In most circumstances, Shield production of a city can be increased through the construction of certain Improvements and Wonders. The construction of mines also improves Shield production in certain types of terrain.

@@Specialists
The citizen icons displayed in the Population Roster of the City Display represent the city's work force. Each citizen added to the roster is automatically put to work developing one of the terrain squares within the city radius. In certain situations it may become necessary to remove a citizen from terrain production in order to perform a specific task. Citizens so removed are called specialists. There are three types of specialist, each of which increases one of the three components of Trade produced by a city. Entertainers increase Luxuries, Tax Men increase Taxes, and Scientists increase Science production.

To create a specialist, click on any production square in the City Map. The production icons disappear from the square, and an Entertainer appears in the Population Roster. To create a Tax Man, click the Entertainer icon once. To create a Scientist, first create a Tax Man, then click the Tax Man icon once. Cities must be size five or larger to support Tax Men and Scientists.

@@Taxes
The Taxes collected by a city are indicated by gold coin icons in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Taxes are used primarily to pay the maintenance cost of City Improvements each turn. Any tax revenues not used for maintenance of Improvements are added to your treasury. The amount of Taxes generated by the city is primarily determined by the amount of incoming Trade you have allocated to Taxes. This can be adjusted by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option from the Kingdom menu.

Tax revenues can also be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into Tax Men.

@@Trade
Trade represents more than just the exchange of goods and cash between cities and civilizations. Trade also represents the exchange of knowledge and ideas, and the recreational travel and activities of the citizens of your civilization. The total amount of Trade produced by each city is represented by double-arrow icons displayed in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Trade is then broken down into three separate components: Taxes, Luxuries, and Science. The amount of Trade allocated to each of these areas is controlled by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option on the Kingdom menu.

Trade can be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World. It can also be increased through terrain improvements, and through the establishment of trade routes.

@@Trade Routes
Trade routes are established by moving a Caravan or Freight unit into a city at least ten squares from the unit's home city. You receive an immediate cash payment on the turn that the route is established. On each ensuing turn, each city receives a Trade bonus for as long as the trade route exists. The farther apart the two cities are, the more valuable the trade route. Trade routes established with cities of a rival civilization tend to be more profitable than those established between friendly cities. Each city may have up to three active trade routes at any time.

When using the Advanced Trade rules, the value of a trade route is also affected by the type of goods traded. When trading a commodity that is demanded by the destination city, the trade route is much more profitable.

@@Veteran Units
During the American Civil War, soldiers who had never been in battle were said to have "seen the elephant" after being under fire for the first time. Afterward, they were considered veterans. History shows that well-trained, veteran soldiers are much more likely to survive a battle than inexperienced troops.

Units have a 50 percent chance of becoming Veterans each time they survive a combat encounter. Cities with a Barracks Improvement automatically produce Veteran units, as do all cities under the influence of the Sun Tzu's War Academy Wonder. The attack and defense factors of Veteran units is increased by 50 percent.

@@Corruption and Waste
As your civilization grows, you might notice that some of your cities are losing some of their Trade and Shields to corruption and waste. Corruption is Trade income that is lost to theft, embezzlement, and other illegal practices. Waste is Shield production that is lost to inefficiency. The farther a city is from your capital, the more corruption and waste it experiences. The amount of corruption and waste is also affected by the system of government you are using.
 
Corruption and waste, if left unchecked, can significantly slow the development of your civilization. Both corruption and waste can be reduced by 50 percent by building a Courthouse in the city experiencing the problem. The best solution, however, is to switch your system of government to a more advanced form. The more advanced the government, the less corruption and waste you experience. Communism and Democracy alleviate this problem altogether.

@@Unhappiness Due to Civ Size
Once you have built a certain number of cities, your citizens start to worry about your ability to effectively govern your civilization. When this occurs, additional unhappy citizens appear in each city.

The number of cities you can build before causing additional unhappiness is based on a number of factors, including game difficulty level and government type. The number of cities is higher for more advanced governments and lower levels of difficulty.

@@Combat Damage
It is now possible for units to be damaged as a result of combat. In each successful attack, a unit inflicts an amount of damage equal to its Firepower rating. The amount of damage a unit can sustain before it is destroyed is determined by multiplying the unit's Hit Point rating by ten.

The approximate amount of damage a unit has sustained can be determined by the length and color of the unit's damage bar (the colored bar at the top of the unit's shield symbol). A green bar indicates that the unit has lost from 0 to 33 percent of its Hit Points, a yellow bar shows that the unit has lost from 34 to 66 percent, and a red bar indicates that it has lost 67 percent or more.

Damage also affects the movement of a unit. The percentage of movement lost is equivalent to the percentage of Hit Points lost. Sea units can never have their movement reduced below two. The movement of air units is not affected by damage.

@@Transforming Terrain
In addition to the changes to Terrain that can be made through irrigation and mining, Engineers are able to transform map squares into a radically different Terrain types by using the "Transform" command on the Orders menu. Terrain transformation is particularly useful if the Terrain surrounding a city doesn't produce sufficient resources.

See the Civilopedia entries for each Terrain type for the results of Engineer transformation.

@@Airbases
After the discovery of Radio, your Settlers and Engineers have the ability to construct Airbases. Airbases act as remote refueling stations for Fighters, Bombers, Stealth Fighters, and Stealth Bombers. Strategically placed Airbases effectively extend the range of these units, allowing them to operate farther from friendly cities and Carriers.

To build an Airbase, chose the "Airbase" command from the Orders menu, or press the "e" key.

@@Airlift
After the discovery of Combined Arms, you have the ability to perform Airlift operations between your cities. Airlifting allows you to move units instantly over great distances. In order to Airlift a unit between two cities, both cities must have an Airport.

To Airlift a unit, move the unit into a city with an Airport and choose "Airlift" from the Orders menu, or press the "l" key. A menu of possible destinations appears. Choose the destination city from the menu, and the unit is instantly transported to that city. The unit becomes available for use on the following turn.

@@City Squares
;Translation Note: This refers to the map squares occupied by cities, not "Town Squares".
The resources utilized by a city are not only generated in the squares surrounding the city: they are also generated by the city square itself. The city square generates all the resources normally produced by the Terrain type on which the city is built. In addition, the Terrain square occupied by the city is improved to the maximum extent possible. The city square automatically contains a road, which is upgraded to a railroad when the Railroad Advance is discovered. The city square is also automatically irrigated or mined, depending on the type of terrain. Finally, if the city is built on Terrain that normally produces no Shields, one Shield is automatically added to the other resources generated in the city square. These enhancements ensure that the city square produces the maximum amount of resources possible.


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